Using Technology to Assist in Vocabulary Acquisition and Reading Comprehension

Vocabulary plays an important part in second language acquisition and academic achievement. This paper will present several possibilities to enhance vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension with the help of technology.

Introduction

Vocabulary Acquisition and L2/FL Reading Comprehension

Benefits of CALL for Vocabulary Acquisition and Reading Comprehension

Multimedia Glosses and Vocabulary Development

Using Multimedia for Vocabulary-building

Benefits of Multimedia-enhanced Dictionaries

Vocabulary-development Software without Multimedia Components

Benefits of Multimedia for Reading Comprehension

Teaching Principles

First Principle: Instructors Should Pay More Attention to the Existence of Various Teaching Tools

Second Principle: Instructors Should Introduce Multimedia-glossed Texts into Their Vocabulary/Reading Classes

Third Principle: Instructors Should Be Acquainted with the Criteria for Software and Courseware Evaluation

Fourth Principle: Instructors Should Keep Up with Current Methodology and Make Best Use of Visuals and Multimedia

Conclusion

Teaching ESL Reading Using Computers

Introduction

Previous Research

The first major computer-based reading curriculum was the work of Richard Atkinson in 1964 at Stanford University which was supported by a grant from the U.S. Office of Education. The project was a first-grade reading curriculum aimed to lessen the need for classroom teachers (Atkinson, 1974).

Computer-based reading curricula continued to develop but were of a commercial nature. Though some research, primarily evaluative, was conducted, most computer-based reading curricula studies have been sponsored by the companies marketing them (Reinking et al, 1996).

These research attempts were exclusively for L1 reading. Only during the past ten years has the use of computers in the field of teaching second language reading been increasing. A variety of studies have shown the importance of using computers in ESL reading (Willet, 1992). Chun & Plass (1996) investigated how reading comprehension can be facilitated with a multimedia application for language learning. They studied the effects of a dynamic visual advance organizer on the macro level and the effects of multimedia annotations for single vocabulary items on the micro level. Furthermore, they examined the relationship between vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension. The results of their study indicated that the visual advance organizer does aid in overall comprehension and that annotations of vocabulary items consisting of both visual and verbal information help more than verbal information only. Also, a moderate correlation between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension was found. Chun & Plass claimed that the results support the dual coding theory and its extension to multimedia learning and emphasize the significance of visual information in addition to verbal information to support both top-down and bottom-up processing in reading in a foreign language.

In another study to improve reading speed and comprehension of ESL students using computers, Culver (1991) implemented a computer reading program to determine the exit and entrance scores of ESL college students and to find out if their reading speed and comprehension would improve. The results showed some improvements for the majority of students in the target group with an overall increase of 3.9 grade level in reading rate. The results show important information about the effect of increasing reading speed on student comprehension as a result of employing computers. It was concluded that the computer was a good tool for improving students' reading rate despite the fact that increased speed did not lead to increased levels of comprehension for some students.

Chun D. & Plass J. (1997) based on underlying theories of L2 reading comprehension and text comprehension with multimedia, discussed "how L2 reading research is focusing increasingly on the cognitive processes involved in reading, that is, the interaction of lower-level, bottom-up processes such as vocabulary acquisition with higher level, top-down processes such as activating prior knowledge" (p.60). They merged this understanding with existing research on learning with technology to find out how students with different learning abilities put together "verbal and visual information". Their goal, in this study, was not to determine the effectiveness of multimedia on reading comprehension, but rather the learners who may benefit from multimedia instruction.

Whereas Chun & Plass used the underlying theory of L2 reading comprehension with multimedia, Preisinger, R. et al., (1988) used the schema theory as a basis to evaluate reading software programs. They developed criteria and questions to evaluate: 1) interactive capabilities of reading software (e.g. its flexibility, response to student errors, and ability to make a distinction between major and unimportant errors), 2) information processing (e.g. support of the use of prediction and problem solving strategies, use of text-based activities in the context of a reading passage, and encouragement of analyzing texts), 3) background knowledge (e.g. building schemata through pre-reading activities), and 4) general software construction and implementation. The goal of this study was to develop an evaluation tool based in light of a theory to help teachers choose the right reading programs for their students.

In drawing conclusion about the use of computers for reading instruction, previous research clearly supported the idea that computer-based instruction facilitates students' reading comprehension and increases their reading speed. This conclusion is supported by the results of the preceding studies and a series of other studies conducted by Kulik, Bangert, & Williams, 1983 who found significant increases in students' reading speed and comprehension across studies of computer-assisted reading instruction. These results should encourage ESL reading teachers to use computers in their classrooms not because they are "new technology" as reported by Wellington, 1995, but rather because of the positive results they bring to students' achievements.

Design

This paper will discuss three software programs that help ESL intermediate teachers to have their students practice reading using computers. The three software programs are: Mac Reader , StoryBoard, and Reading Galaxy. These activities are not meant to be used in one class period but rather in different classes depending on the type of reading we want to teach.

The first program, MacReader, is more concerned with sentences and paragraphs structures. Teacher scrambles the text and student reconstructs it. The teacher should choose the text to be centered from simple language resources that are suitable for ESL intermediate students. Once the text is entered, the program automatically shuffles it so that the students need to reconstruct it. There is a newer software called New Reader published by Hyperbole Software.

The second program, Storyboard, is concerned with text completion and vocabulary building. Learners enter words that are missing from the text by guessing them from the context. Both of these programs provide change to the classes regular activities and are used to train students to use reading strategies and become better readers. MacReader and Storyboard do not have any multimedia capabilities. There are no buzzes, beeps, sounds, colors, or any type of multimedia (AlKahtani & Abalhassan, 1999).

Reading Galaxy, on the other hand, has what the two programs lack in terms of interaction, sound, and music effects. students are interacting with the program while reading; they listen to the computer and follow the directions. Unlike, the other two programs, the teacher cannot add or remove any of the program contents. Thus, the role of the teacher is to "construct" the content in the first two programs and "facilitate" the content in the third program. The student's role is to reconstruct the content in the first two, and construct the meaning in the third one.

Activities

1-MacReader

As for the reading exercises, when students click on "exercises", a pop up window gives six options: Read, timed reading, paced reading, cloze, sentence jumble, and paragraph jumble. The program is based on one group of exercises that are accessed by two icons found under the group "MacReader". One of these two icons is a glossary for adding vocabulary. Teachers need to have a password to access control programs that are used to author the texts or add to the vocabulary lists. The "Notes" icon accesses students' scores and is available for students as well as for teachers.

Exercises:

1-Read:

This exercise is previously authored. The teacher can choose the topics and decide the level of difficulty of texts. The student is assigned a text, prepared by the teacher or randomly chooses a text that is part of the software. Here, the student reads through the text and when the first page is finished, two arrows lead to turning the page to continue the reading until the text is finished. The back arrow allows students to go back to revise or relate the text parts. The title of the text is shown at the top of the new page as: " Current Text "Title...".. The session name ''Read'' is shown at the top left corner of the program. If students complete the text and click on the right button, a pop up message asks if they are interested in another exercise. Another feature of this program is the capability of defining new vocabulary by just clicking on any of them.

2-Timed Reading:

This exercise is for reading speed. Certain topics are provided and students can choose what interested them the most.

3-Paced Reading:

This exercise enables students to choose the pace that fits their reading ability using a bar indicating the numbers of words per minute. Another button appears beside the bar to stop the reading. It will be indicated in the notes that the reader stopped the paced reading. As a result, the round will not be counted but canceled. students might experiment until an appropriate speed is found.

4- Cloze:

This exercise is a reading comprehension exercise, which asks students to replace missing words. When students select CLOZE from the exercise button, they should see the dialog box below:

Delete one word every HOW MANY?
Enter a number between 2 and 15
(OK) (Cancel)

Student may type a number between 2 and 15 in the dialog box and click ''OK''. CLOZE exercises replace words from the text with numbers. If a student chooses the number 5, for instance, every fifth word in the text will be replaced with a number. Thus, the bigger the number, the easier the exercise. To work on the exercise, students will need to click a number in the text to select it, then will type the missing word. students can press the 'return' key or click the 'answer' button to check their work. If students need help, they can click the "Hint" button, which will show three options:

• By number of letters
• By showing the first letter
• By definition

5- Sentence Jumble:

This exercise is also for reading comprehension. It automatically mixes up the sentences from any paragraph a student selects. As with most of this program activities, the paragraph which is used can be from the software or be prepared by the teacher before hand. The computer does the jumble of sentences automatically and randomly.

6- Paragraph Jumble:

Paragraph Jumble is a similar exercise to the Sentence Jumble above. It just handles paragraphs. This exercise requires more advanced students unless the texts are abridged or chosen from simple language resources.

7- Glossary:

Besides authoring the texts to be used for the exercise, teachers can also add vocabulary to the program using the icon "Glossary" in the program group. This feature helps teachers customize the program to fit their students' needs. EAP programs could utilize this feature to serve their goals like teaching their students certain lists of vocabulary. This feature adds a great deal to the merits of this program

2-StoryBoard

Storyboard is a popular and flexible activity, equally at home, in the classroom, and at the computer lab center. It is part of a software package including nine other different programs like: Spell Master, Match Master, Choice Master...etc.

Storyboard is a program that teachers can use to improve their students' reading strategies, build up their vocabulary, and help them practice prediction and guessing. It a is good supplement for teachers to reinforce their regular activities. Like many CALL programs, this program provides change to the class's regular activities. Teachers can use this program to support their reading classes and train students to use reading strategies. students become better readers using their guessing abilities.

Each word in the text is replaced by small squares; one square representing each letter. Learners, working individually or in a small group, reconstruct the text, one word at a time. If they guess correctly, all the occurrences of the word in the text appear. There is no need to start at the beginning of the text. Learners start by entering the words they feel sure about, such as 'grammar words', like "the". As each word is found, the structure of the text becomes clearer and further guesses become easier. Teachers can save and access their students' files. Unlike Mac Reader, students' scores are saved and cannot be changed by students. If a student for example decides to look at the text as a whole, the program will automatically detect that action and save it for teacher to notice.

Program Overview:

1. The student program (sb):

• Hide all Words
• Show given words
• Cancel

Last guess ....... Words found ........... Guess a word: .........

The second choice "Show given Words" shows the text with all the words, which the teacher has decided to show to the students according to the lesson plan. The same interface will be displayed.

The students write the word in the space provided after clicking the hidden word to be guessed. Four options are listed vertically on the right of the screen showing:

1. Letter: to know a certain letter after assigning it by the cursor.
2. Word: to know a certain word after choosing it by the cursor.
3. Hint: to know more about a word that is replaced by circles.
4. Text: to show the whole text.

File, See, Options, Window, and Configure are the items that appear in the main menu. Under each of those items, the student should find different functions needed to run the exercise and check results.

Any move that the student makes is saved automatically and could be checked by the student or the teacher at any time. To review the scores, a student can choose "score" from "see" in the main menu.

2. The Teacher Program (sbt) :

1. Text authoring:

Teacher can import authentic material or just type and save them in the program.
2. Help:

Three help options (help 1, help 2, help 3) are written by the teacher in a way that fits the lesson topic and purpose.
3. Given words:

In order to allow some flexibility to the lesson, the teacher may show some words to the students according to the lesson plan.
4. Hints.

The teacher can provide some hints to help students complete the exercises.

The main menu includes: files, edit, authoring, search, window, and configure. This menu is different from the student program's menu. The authoring item is the main difference. student files could be saved and reviewed under the item "File".

3-Reading Galaxy

Reading Comprehension: students construct meaning by interacting with a text, for example:

• reading the text to answer multiple choice questions (in Ganymede Squares Game)
• reading the text to determine the accuracy of alien claims (in To Tale the Truth Game).
• reading about authors (alien authors) to answer questions about them (in Metro Match Game).

• selecting correct answers (in Ganymede Squares Game).
• decoding secret phrases (in Stump the Human Game).
• decoding hidden phrases (in Meteor Match Game).

• reading alien claims first, and then going to the text for the answer (in To Tale the Truth).
• reading texts to answer questions (in Beat the Krok).

• answering questions about characters (in Charlotte's Web in Ganymede Squares).
• answering questions about the setting of the Wizard of OZ (in Beat the Krok).
• answering questions about the plot of secret of the Andes (in To Tale the Truth).

• matching answers to clues (in Ganymede Squers).
• filling in blanks in hidden phrases (in Beat the Krok)
• completing secret phrases (in Stump the Human).

• reading and following game instructions (in Ganymede Squares).
• following audio instructions (in Meteor Match)
• reading clues (in To Tale the Truth).

• determining the accuracy of alien claims (in To Tale the Truth).
• figuring out what's wrong with the picture (in Stump the Human).

In a reading lesson, the Reading Galaxy program can be used as pre-reading, reading, and post reading activities. For the pre-reading activity, the teacher may need to connect the computer to an LCD panel to project the text for students. The teacher then chooses one of the passages that are available among the program options such as the (Warst of the Wurst ) which has a passage of four episodes. By clicking the buttons Read Passage and then Voice, the computer will start reading the text highlighting each sentence as it reads. students may take notes while listening. The teacher then asks students to talk about what they understood from the passage using their notes. This would stimulate students' interest and activate their prior knowledge of the content.

For the reading activity, students will have four minutes to skim the four episodes, one minute for each episode, to find out the main idea. They will be given another 10 minutes to read it again slowly and carefully. The teacher then commands the computer to test students' comprehension by asking them questions related to the passage they have been reading. Clicking the button where it reads "BEGIN" can do this.

For the post reading activity, students can play games related to the reading passage. Such activities would facilitate the students' reading and comprehension of a text. Activities like these can be done from time to time by taking students to the laboratory or by bringing a portable computer to the classroom connected to an LCD panel which would allow the class to see the text to be read. students can practice these activities and other similar activities individually in the lab. The teacher can assign one of the laboratory computers to be used for this purpose

Conclusion

Integrating CALL into the Writing Curriculum

In this article I will first, submit some background information in support of using computers for language-learning instruction. Next, I will briefly outline the work I have done to incorporate computers into my writing courses. Also included are results of a student-based attitude survey that is taken from current classes that will hopefully serve to further endorse my position. Lastly, I would like to present an overview for integrating CALL into the curriculum.

Background Information

Regardless of the specific methodology used, language teachers have generally found it desirable to present new items through meaningful content; in fact, 'contextualizing' lesson presentations have become a widely accepted rule of good language teaching. (Brinton et al., 1989) Language learning takes place most effectively in social settings through communication. An important part of teaching is to structure opportunities for communication for the learner - the learner must be communicating about something real and interesting. Through Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) a wide range of communication channels are possible.

Types of Computer Mediated Communication

Today, researchers are actively probing the effectiveness of computer assisted instruction (CAI) and computer-assisted language learning (CALL) in traditional and novel ways. These past and contemporary research investigations have implications for the CAI/CALL course designers (to help them construct effective software), the classroom teachers (to help them optimize content and language learning with the aid of computers), and the school administrators (to assist them with purchase and effective utilization of computers in the school environment). Some of the questions that have been posed are:

• Can computer applications help improve student performance in basic skills and other key areas?
• For what specific skill areas, grade levels, and content areas are computer applications most effective?
• Which kinds and levels of students seem to profit most from using computers to learn?
• Which kinds of computer applications are most effective for which skill and content areas?
• Can computer applications improve students' attitudes toward school, learning, and their abilities to learn?
• Will improved attitudes translate into better performance in school?

• writing quality of students can be improved by using word processing;
• higher grades tend to be achieved for word processed assignments;
• affective factors such as attitudes towards writing and motivation can be improved; and
• willingness to write multiple drafts is higher when word processing is used.

The Writing Process

Guided Writing:

Text repair type exercises may require the student to modify or correct text to address redundancy, misspelling, grammatical error and errors of fact. 'Cloze' type exercises. The marking and moving functions of word processors can be used in exercises that require students to order jumbled text. Such exercises provide practice in the recognition and understanding of the use discourse markers.

Free Writing:

A number of positive effects are claimed for using word processing in a process approach. The most obvious point that drudgery in the revision and refinement of writing is significantly reduced. Students can develop a more positive approach to writing; that writing quality is improved by the increase in the number and complexity of revision operations; that the writer is freer to experiment and think without committing to paper.

Using the Computer as a Stimulus for Writing:

Students tend to be more motivated to write for real reasons - communicating with a friend about a mutual interest, writing to a magazine or for a magazine, preparing information for a bulletin board, taking part in an on-line discussion or debate. In these situations there is a real audience, or readership, and the student writer will take care to address this readership appropriately, attractively or persuasively as the need is perceived.

Classroom Implementation

While the course has a writing focus, all four macro skills are employed with additional tasks provided to improve grammar and vocabulary. Enough comprehensible input is supplied by the software and by student peers in an attempt to augment second language acquisition. Each "Work Station" has accompanying it, a complete set of simple instructions with time parameters set for the students to follow. Working in their groups or individually, and within the time constraints, the students are free to explore and work through the various assignments supplied by the respective software. Some of the programs are authorable; allowing me the freedom to change and/or create any assignments as may be necessary.

The software seems to supply enough impetus that I can act as a facilitator, in the dual role of technical advisor, should problems arise, but more often as a guide, correspondent, motivator or challenger. I feel this is in keeping with current EFL pedagogy, which expounds that more responsibility for learning be placed upon the learner. The accompanying appendices will illustrate how the "Work Stations" are set up and how student accountability is supervised. Additionally, I have included a copy of a survey given to the students to measure their attitude toward using computers in the writing classroom.

The Study

1. Fully 88% of the students believed the computer helped them to improve their writing skills;
2. 53% found it was not difficult to learn to use the computer.

Subjects

Instrument

Results

It is important to highlight some of the limitations of this study. First, perhaps most important, baseline data need to be obtained from comparable groups of EFL students enrolled in writing classes held in traditional classrooms. Ideally, learners in a control group (taught in traditional classrooms) should be taught by the same teacher and with the same materials and curriculum as learners in the computer classroom. In addition, the learners in both groups should be matched for first and second language writing proficiency and first language background. Data obtained from a control group could provide valuable insights concerning the attitudes that are affected by the use of the computers and word processing rather than by other factors (e.g., the materials or teachers).

Integrating CALL into the Curriculum

In an environment where there is limited access to media, computers and other technology, either by regulation or the situation of facilities, learners and teachers are less likely to engage with information technology and other media. However, where access to media and technology through libraries and resources and computing center is encouraged, there is a greater likelihood for success with an innovation like CALL.

Flexibility in school organization and timetables is also a necessary condition for an approach to learning, which includes self-access, independent research and practice. Excellent facilities are often wasted because the people for whom they are intended are not free to make use of them.

The learning environment includes the broad curriculum and the language curriculum. The use of computers in teaching and learning invariably leads to a greater degree of learner activity and, hopefully, control. Highly structured, content dominated, teacher centered approaches to curriculum and teaching practice are unlikely to be conducive to effective use of CALL.

It is most important that the level of preparedness of learners is assessed in CALL. There are many factors that influence this preparedness:

• 1st, 2nd language: Are the available materials suitable or adaptable for the type of language learner? For instance, first and second language learners are likely to react in markedly different ways to the same activity or material.
• Age: Are the available CALL materials suitable for the age and academic level of the learners?
• Independence: As CALL generally requires a degree of independence and also a willingness to cooperate in the learner, we need to ask whether these qualities are sufficiently developed in the target learner or group.
• Motivation: Are computer-based activities likely to be attractive to the target group? Will they be sufficiently motivated to work in this mode?
• Computer Literacy: There is a school of thought that believes that computer literacy should be acquired 'naturally' through learning with computers. In contrast, there is strong support for specific computer literacy training - for example keyboard skills, word processing skills, the use of databases and communications programs. There is a danger that if initial training is not provided, the required skills are not developed thoroughly. There is also a danger that the learner's attention is distracted by technical details and cannot concentrate on the language learning task at hand.

The Language Teacher

When considering the use of CALL in the language curriculum, we should analyze the teacher's preferred language teaching styles to see whether they can successfully accommodate the CALL programs and materials that are envisaged. A communicative language learning approach for example could be enhanced by the use of computer mediated communication. CALL programs that are based on graded practice in formal aspects of language would perhaps not be integrated as successfully into a 'communicative' classroom, but may be a useful supplement in a self-access mode for specific learners.

Does the teacher have the technical competence required to manage the installation and use of CALL programs and materials? Enthusiasm often wanes when technical difficulties crop up too frequently. Support from a member of the technical staff or the computing center is often necessary and problems can arise if this is not available. CALL interest groups, consisting of other teachers, can be a great support for the individual teacher, assisting in the identification of suitable material, teaching methods and technical trouble shooting. As an example of this, there exist numerous forums pertaining to CALL that can be readily accessed through e-mail.

CALL is not a Hammer and not Every Teaching Problem is a Nail!

Judy F. Chen
jfc [at] rs1.occc.edu.tw
http://www.occc.edu.tw/~jfc/
The Overseas Chinese College of Commerce (Taichung, Taiwan, ROC)

CAI and CALL Application in Taiwan

Past

• General lack of computerization of schools in the R.O.C.

An observer outside of Taiwan would be surprised that one of the world's technology manufacturing centers actually has been slow to adopt computers in its schools. This situation, however, is undergoing change as the R.O.C. Ministry of Education places more emphasis on computer use in educational institutions.

• Lack of access to mainframes and minis, on which many CAI and CALL software was originally developed

Computer departments have traditionally limited access of their mainframes and minis to computer majors. Since PCs have existed only since the early 1980s, most software, and especially powerful software often needed in CAI, has been developed on mainframe computers. This has changed, however, as PCs have taken over as the workhorses of the computer revolution and computer departments quickly upgraded their machines, thus leaving many "outdated," yet still useful, 8086, 80286 and 80386 computers with no users. On the software side, 80386 and 80486 computers, combined with modern programming technologies (Sarna & Febish, 1993) can match and even surpass the computing power of many mainframes in existence only a decade earlier.

• Needed technology only recently commercialized, i.e., powerful computer packages: 80486 CPUs, sound cards and CD-ROMs

The rapidly dropping prices of computers has allowed English departments to gain access to used machines as well as newer 80486 machines. Economies of scale in the manufacturing and distribution of "multimedia" compatible computers now means that for under NT$40,000 (approximately US$1,500) an individual system can be purchased that runs the most up-to-date software capable of producing moving graphics, video and good quality sound.

• Expenditures of time and money for non-computer based "language labs" that are not perceived as successful teaching tools

The factors cited above are of a structural nature and have not been influenced by language teachers. One last factor I will cite is directly related to language teachers and the previous "technology solution" for language learners, i.e., the audiolingual methods, from the late fifties and early sixties, as applied in the language lab. Although many of the motivating theories have since been supplanted, the language labs go on. Schools nearly everywhere around the world automatically include labs as part of any English program (Strei, 1979).

It is likely that negative experiences with language labs has led teachers to be skeptical of new technologies in the classroom. Many Taiwan schools have installed language lab equipment that allows a class of students to listen to recorded conversations through headphones, equipped with microphones, while a teacher can send instructions, listen into and monitor students through a central control panel.

Often, the engineers who installed such equipment did not understand all the features and installation requirements and certainly had little grasp of the pedagogical applications. The result was that at many locations, these language labs simply have became glorified, and expensive, tape players. The equipment actually served to separate the students from the teacher and encouraged less motivated students to daydream through the class period. Such experience is not unique to Taiwan, nor is it new, but may be endemic to language labs (Kirpal 1979). Teachers are often placed in these labs with no training, not even a manual on the lab's features and use, while a class of fifty students wait for the teacher to assimilate. With teachers struggling to find use of the technology they already have, it is unrealistic to expect them to quickly swallow another "technology solution" pill.

Present

Many teachers, domestic and foreign have observed that students generally have a positive attitude toward technology in the classroom. Studies have consistently shown that students have positive attitudes about computer technology being used in the classroom and that such technology does have a positive impact (Warden, 1995; Chen, 1988; Nash et al., 1989; Brady, 1990; Herrmann, 1987; Johnson, 1988; Phinney & Mathis, 1988).

However, such attitudes and results may simply reflect the "normal" outlook of most people who live in the Computer Age. Academics such as Pennington (1991) and Thiesmeyer (1989) warn of rushing into CALL without solid evidence of its benefits. Such caution is justified since all of the cultural signals being sent every day, support the believe that technology is good, and that specifically computers are helpful in nearly every human endeavor. Even expressing the slightest doubts about the usefulness of computers is likely to result in one being labeled as a Luddite. Classroom research of CAI must avoid such dogmatism and not make any apriori conclusions.

Future

Researchers must make a determination about the pedagogical outcomes of new, and old, CAI software. Some points important to any CAI investigation include:

Avoiding Hawthorne effects that are common in this area

It is quite obvious to any group of students that they are being observed when said group is allowed access to computer equipment and software while others are not. Even the use of class time to introduce computer language labs and/or software rips away the mask of the researcher. Rather than creating research situations that invite the Hawthorne effect, researchers should look into applying some type of technology to all groups being studied. Some groups are actually using the teaching technology in question, while others are receiving a placebo.

Not questioning attitudes about technology

Direct questioning of subjects about the technology in question is certain to illicit inaccurate and irrelevant information. First of all, societal pressures encourage positive responses towards technology. Anyone, especially young people, who does not like technology often is of the opinion that such an attitude is a reflection of his/her own deficiencies. Secondly, direct attitude questions about the material being tested is simply not accurate. If we were to show Mickey Mouse cartoons to one group of students and then had a different group of students read Shakespeare, the results from a direct question about material is obvious. Although details about comprehensible input could be argued ad infinitum, language researchers must understand that it is results that matter and not intermediate attitudes, which are shifting and vacillating at best.

Not judging the software interface but looking for real language improvement results

Somewhat related to the above point, this problem stems from interfaces that today can include animation, actual video clips, dialogue and music. The multimedia revolution has arrived and anyone who looks at some well produced, slick multimedia titles cannot help but to be impressed. However, it is not uncommon that the newness factor wears off quickly and a multimedia title that looked so slick the first few viewings is later found to be empty of real content. The computer screen that shows moving colorful pictures is interesting to the teacher who buys the title, but we must consider the students who will use the software many times over in their attempts to improve their language skills. Will such moving pictures and sound look good after the tenth time around, or will they simply become an annoyance? Content must be paramount in our investigations.

Communicative Language Teaching in a Multimedia Language Lab

1.0. Introduction

The study is the extension of Huang (1997). As a result, the aim of this study tends to explore how students adjust themselves in learning English with the aid of multimedia computers and the interaction between students and multimedia computers. The literature of past research in the Communicative Language Teaching Approach and computer-assisted language learning usually look into the topics in their own domain. The research combining the two fields is not common so far, which makes this study important.

This study would like to address three questions. First, what are the similarities and differences of language teaching and learning between a traditional classroom and a multimedia language lab under the communicative framework? Second, are there any changes in the roles of teachers and students when they are in a different teaching environment from traditional classroom? Third, what are the implications of the Communicative Language Teaching Approach (CLT approach hereafter) in a multimedia computer language lab in teaching?

2.0.Review of Literature

To combine the CLT approach with a framework of computer-assisted language learning, computer simulation seems to be the best strategy to fit both. Huang (1997) categorized computer simulations into two types: instruction-oriented and fun-oriented. Their categorization depends on their primary purpose, the nature of computer-human interaction, and the amount of control (see table below).

The primary purpose is remarkably significant as it will determine the nature of the computer simulations. The instruction-oriented computer simulation aims at teaching or helping people learn. Consequently, the primary purpose of this type of computer simulation will be giving instructions and placing the responsibility of learning on the users for most of the time and constantly monitoring them to see whether they have successfully achieved the goal. Moreover, the nature of computer-human interaction is not balanced. Users receive instructions passively, then respond, and wait further instructions. The computer becomes dominant in the interaction. Subsequently, the user's choice during the interaction is rather limited. Users do not have much choice since all available choices are predetermined. The outcome of the user's move becomes predictable. The user's limited control over the computer is partly due to the fact that users in an instruction-oriented simulation are expected to accomplish a pre-set goal in learning. The simulation guides users in a certain direction. Therefore, the user's choices are restricted by simulation's primary purpose.

Take the famous Living Books series (Broderbund) for example. Users can click on a paragraph and the text will be read out loud. When users click on any objects in the background, the object will move accompanied by sound effects. Users can continue clicking as often as they like, but the one-click-one-move interaction remains the same.

On the contrary, the primary purpose of fun-oriented simulations is to be both motivational and entertaining. Instruction in a particular subject is not the primary concern in fun-oriented simulations. This type of computer simulation tends to motivate users to get interested in the simulation itself. Entertainment is the goal. As a result, both user and computer share equal opportunities to receive instructions from and respond to each other. Furthermore, the user has multiple choice for taking control. Fewer restrictions are imposed. The user's move could lead to another multiplicity of choices and the prompting of an unexpected response from the computer.

However, the two categories of computer simulations are not mutually exclusive of each other. Rather, they would be better regarded as the two ends of a continuum. All computer simulation activities fall somewhere in between. In other words, it is very possible that a computer simulation possesses both instruction-oriented and fun-oriented features.

3.0.Methodology

Subjects

All of the students graduated from junior high school. They had completed 4 years of English study (3 years in junior high school, one year at Fooyin). Also, students were familiar with the basic operation of computers such as saving and retrieving files because they took a required computer introductory course at the first year and meanwhile were taking a required word processing course.

Setting

The multimedia lab shares some features with the traditional audio-lingual language lab. The teacher can broadcast the teaching materials by playing audio tapes, video-tapes, or CDs. Students practice with each other in pairs by themselves. The instructor assigns a pair of students as the model group.

The multimedia lab has some features that traditional language lab cannot compete. First, a traditional language lab does not have the function of video on demand. Students can choose an English teaching program they are interested in and learn on their pace of learning. The English learning program will just serve the student's desired goal of learning. In one sense, students easily get the individual attention from the computer. Second, the function of a multimedia lab is multiple. It can not only assume the role of a traditional language lab, but also offer teachers more powerful teaching tools with the aid of modern computer technology.

Design

To be more specific, each session consisted of five stages. First, the teacher oriented students to the basic operation of computers again. Then, the teacher needed to present the simulation software. Second, after students learned how to play SimTown, they must build their own simulation town. Students were required to build the town in collaboration with the partner. They played the role of mayor of the simulated town. At this stage, students merely enjoyed the fun of playing. What they did not know was that they were establishing their own computer simulation environment for language learning. They were allowed to build the city in whichever way they desired. Third, after students finished building their city, the city itself then became the simulation world as students' learning materials. Students were required to practice an assigned topic. Fourth, students presented their simulated town to the class based on the assigned topic. The presentation was oral and in English. The student presentations could be given either individually or in groups. This presentation stage includes two parts: presentation and interaction. In addition to the presentation itself, the other class members might ask questions. It usually took place in a multimedia lab because each group simulation town would be broadcast to every student monitor screen.

Before leaving this section, it stands to reason that a short introduction of the computer simulation software employed in this study is necessary. SimTown is a computer simulation program created by Maxis/Electronic Arts. It is designed for children at the age of 3 to 10. As a result, it happens to be very suitable for EFL students at the intermediate level for the following reasons. First, the layout and graphic design are very appealing to students. They will not easily feel bored and keep being interested in the software. Second, the vocabulary in the software is easy to understand. Since the software is about a town, it provides several name list of trees, houses, buildings and the like. Students will increase their vocabulary by playing the software. Third, unlike SimCity, SimTown's counterpart for adults, every creature in this software has its name and personal information such as favorite food and sports. The player can even create his own character and track the character location in the town. It adds more realism to the software.

The challenge of this simulation is that the player must build a town from scratch and then manage it. The town will become a ghost town if it is poorly managed. The computer simulation computes every decision the player makes. The computer simulation will respond to every move the player makes.

Data Collection

4.0. Discussion

The study presents two types of communication in the multimedia lab from the perspective of the CLT teaching. First, the CLT teaching in the multimedia lab presents a large impact on the student-teacher communication. The student-teacher communication seemed to be blocked to some extent by the layout of the multimedia lab. Physically, the multimedia lab is larger than the traditional classroom. The physical distance enlarged the psychological distance. It has the tendency that the two-way communication between the teacher and the students turned to be the one-way teacher to student communication.

Second, the student-computer communication is relatively new to students. For most of the students, it was the first time for them to take so much time "talking" to a computer. Here we need to clarify the concept of communication with a computer. As mentioned above, SimTown is an interactive software. By interaction, we mean that the computer software will respond to students' move and every decision will lead to different ends. The computer software and students do not communicate with each other by " words." Instead, students need to learn another communication system. The computers communicate by means of graphic presentation, sound effect, and animated characters. Students have to learn how to communicate with the computer so that they know what move they should make next.

Next, the layouts of the traditional classroom and the multimedia lab look similar. The seats and computers are all arranged in a matrix. One important difference is that the teacher can easily reach students by walking in the aisle between two columns of seats and initiate the communication. Students can also easily rearrange the seats for the communicative activities in the classroom. It does not happen that way in a multimedia lab. All computers are fixed on the floor in the same matrix as the seat arrangement in a traditional classroom. All of sudden the teacher has the difficulty reaching students. A multimedia lab is far larger than a traditional classroom. Thus, the teacher needs to talk to students through the broadcasting system. The "intimacy" between the student and the teacher is gone. All students can see is a teacher hiding behind the control console.

Also, the communicative activities are different. In a traditional classroom, the teacher provides the topic-specific situation for students to make use of language as much as they can. Since the traditional classroom is far from any similarities to the real life situation, the teacher has to tell students to use their imagination and place themselves in that situation. Nevertheless, the multimedia lab offers the opportunity for students to visualize the situation. The computer software creates a virtual world that is very similar to the real world. It is a world that you can see.

Are there any changes in the roles of teachers and students when they are in a different teaching environment from traditional classroom?

The role of teachers and students apparently change. The teacher assumes the role of coach or director. He or she orchestrates the flow of communication for the whole class. However, the teacher must realize that to some extent a teacher has been shared with the computer. In this study, the computer software is not designed for teaching. Therefore, the intervention of computer in a teacher's teaching is not very obvious yet. In case that a learning-oriented computer software is used in a multimedia lab, teachers have to be aware that students no longer depend on the only source of knowledge. The computer software will "teach" students the knowledge that teachers are supposed to teach. As a result, a teacher must transform his role from a coach or a director under the communicative framework to a coordinator. The teacher coordinates the flow of communication between the teacher and the student as well as between the student and the computer.

On the other hand, students should elevate their learning motivation and independence on learning. Students' higher motivation is reflected by the interest of participation. When the communicative task requires the student and his partner to complete the town building task on the computer, the negotiation is initiated. Although they might not necessarily speak English when they negotiate about the town building, some students felt the need to communicate in English. Also, they felt that they could set the pace of learning. They did not have to finish the town building in one hour. Rather, they would discuss with the partner and built the town according to their pace of learning.

What are the implications of the Communicative Language Teaching Approach in a multimedia computer language lab in teaching?

First, the choice of appropriate computer software that fits into the setting of a multimedia lab is one of the keys to success. As discussed above, the setting of a multimedia lab is different from a traditional classroom. Computer software is not used at all in a traditional classroom. Textbooks and audio-tapes are the main teaching sources. They are still very helpful teaching tools in a multimedia lab. However, the medium of teaching ought to go along with the computers. The other dimension that should be taken into consideration is that the teaching tool is also different in a multimedia lab. Chalks and blackboard are obsolete. The computer is the most appropriate teaching tool in a multimedia lab. Accordingly, using computer software in a multimedia lab should be fun and interactive.

Second, orientation is import. The problems come from two aspects. One is the computer software itself. One extra job that students have to do is to learn how to manipulate the computer software. For the first few weeks, students have to become familiar with the manipulation of the computer software so that they can begin to make use of the software. Teachers should be aware of the possible frustration resulting from the unfamiliarity of computer software. The student's difficulty in the manipulation of the software usually undermine the students' interest in the class. The computer software is completely new to students. Consequently, negative interactions between students and the computer proved to be very frustrating for most students. Alexis & Trollop warns (1985) that

The other is the technical problems in the management of the multimedia lab. For most of teachers, it demonstrates a major challenge. In a multimedia lab, the management demands not only the fundamental knowledge of computer, but also the advanced the knowledge of computer, which is almost impossible for the majority of English teachers. In other words, you need to be familiar with the computer software you are using in the class, answer students' technical questions, and diagnose the temporary shut-down of computer. In comparison with the work in a traditional classroom, managing a conversation class under the communicative framework in a multimedia lab is relatively demanding.

5.0. Limitations and Implication

First, teachers should prepare themselves for the use of modern computer technology. Foreign language training will not always take place in a traditional classroom. With the help of a setting such as a multimedia lab, foreign language training will be more efficient. Teachers should have the clear idea of how a traditional classroom is different from a multimedia lab. To serve that purpose well, this study summarizes the previous discussion as below.

Moreover, regarding the procedures of carrying out the project, orientation is the key factor in determining success with the project. Teachers must clearly state the goals and linguistic skills students are expected to attain by playing the computer simulation. Students had to keep in mind their purpose for playing the simulation. Otherwise, they would tend to indulge themselves in simply playing. Also, since SimTown is an English-version software, it is essential that teachers get students familiarized with necessary vocabulary to play the computer simulation before the group project. Moreover, SimTown is an interactive software. That is, messages regarding the city during its stages of development could pop out in English at anytime. The computer simulation has its own "advisors" who are always willing to offer their valuable suggestions to help students run a better city. Students would also encounter difficulties building their city if they could not understand the on-line interactive messages.

Although this study shows that the CLT approach is not as successful as we had expected in a setting of the multimedia lab, this study suggests that with the fast development of computer technology, foreign language teaching in a setting other than the traditional classroom is still a promising trend.

Internet Treasure Hunts - A Treasure of an Activity for Students Learning English

Originallly presented at the
1999 ACTA-ATESOL National Conference - TESOL Matters for the Millennium
Sydney, Australia, 17-21 January 1999

Introduction

In an Internet Treasure Hunt students, working cooperatively in groups of two or three to a computer connected to the WWW, use Netscape to search for answers to a variety of questions by searching various Web sites and pages for the answers. There are a number of such activities already prepared, online and free to use from Web pages that include hyperlinks to the sites that need to be accessed to find the answers to the hunt. This means a search engine does not need to be used in these Treasure Hunts. Several of the Online Treasure Huntshave been specifically designed for ESL students and the Internet TESL Journal at http://iteslj.org/th/ maintains a useful link to a collection of these.

Other prepared Treasure Hunts can be found on the WWW. Some are for ESL students and others are designed for Primary or High school students but can often be used with ESL students as well. Alternatively, teachers can make up their own and even publish them on the web through their own homepage or through a site such as the Internet TESL Journal. A variation on the Treasure Hunt, which includes hyperlinks to the sites where the answers are found, is one without these links necessitating the use of search engines. Although this is easier for the teacher to prepare it is far more difficult for students to complete and I recommend them for use only with students who are of particularly high level and fully conversant with the use of the Internet. A further variation of the unlinked Treasure Hunt is the Web Quest which is a longer term project designed for native speakers that involves more complicated tasks, than just answering a few questions, and can take weeks to complete. This type of quest is less suitable for my teaching situation but could be very valuable for teachers in a different situation. ( http://edweb.sdsu.edu/webquest/webquest.html has more information on these.)

Background

Computer knowledge and skills of the students is mixed with some quite conversant with using Netscape and the Internet whilst others are just using it for the first time.

The World Wide Web

Linda Mak on http://www.hku.hk/ssrc/newLearn.html lists some ways in which language learning on the Web is different from conventional classroom learning.

Traditional Language Learning       Web-based Language Learning
-----------------------------       ---------------------------
Linear presentation                 Hypertext, Multimedia      
Not motivating                      High motivation            
Receptive learning                  Self-paced, Self-access    
High teacher control                High learner control       
One-to-many (teacher to students)   Individual + many to many  
Limited resources                   Unlimited, update information 

Relevant to Internet Treasure Hunts she goes on to say

Let me take a few examples to show you how the WWW provides more choices and resources for language learners than conventional classrooms or self-access learning centres. Conventionally, when we read a passage or an essay in print form, the information is linear and there is only one route for readers to continue. Though you may choose to skim or skip any part, the passage is an end in itself. On the WWW, however, information is presented in hypertext and multi-routes are permitted. You may stop at any point to click on a highlighted phrase and jump to other support information, such as a glossary of difficult/ technical terms, the background of the author or society, the pronunciation of words, etc. What's more interesting is: there can be no end to the WWW document you are reading, as you may read a related document written by another author and follow links after link to browse around WWW documents in different parts of the world.

1. Consider Carefully Your Goals
2. Think Integration
3. Don't Underestimate the Complexity
4. Provide Necessary Support
5. Involve Students in Decisions

Objectives & Outcomes

1. The linguistic focus in this activity is on reading with the focus on students scanning through web pages and using hyperlinks to find the specific answers to their questions. Students will examine pictures, titles, headlines, menus and indexes for clues to find the answers. Students should use their knowledge to predict where the answer can be found and what links to follow whilst skipping through areas that are unlikely to have the answer.
2. When using the program in a class lesson I have two or three students working together on a computer thus involving them in cooperative learning. This provides a range of communicative benefits not inherent in use of the program by a single student to the computer, which is better, suited for a self-access activity rather than a class one. Using the computer in cooperative learning facilitates a range of authentic communicative benefits as the students work together to find the answers to the questions, agreeing, disagreeing, offering opinions and helping each other.
3. A further outcome of use of this activity is that it familiarises students with web browser use and navigation on the WWW through the use of hyperlinks. It acquaints them to the nature of the web and its format and gives them a sampling of the vast resources that are available. All this prepares students for more detailed research on the Web using search engines at a later time.

Advantages of CALL

Whilst the activity has no communicative content inherent in itself, by using cooperative learning and having two or three students working together on the one computer to complete it, communicative benefit can be gained when to solve the tasks not only must students scan through the material but they must communicate their ideas and thoughts together. Ben Shneideman, a keynote speaker at the WorldCALL conference at Melbourne University in July 1998 stressed that the use of co-operative learning with CALL is one of its strongest benefits. McKay and Robinson (1997 p. 17) echo this sentiment, as do many others. 'Computers can provide opportunities for cooperative learning. Students are able to pool their knowledge and enhance peer correction as they work together.' The cooperative efforts of students working together to complete the listening exercises gives the use of the program a range of communicative benefits, lacking within the exercises of the program itself, when they converse on what the answers should be. Sussex calls this the 'social dimension of CALL' (1998). Nunan (1993 pp. 82-83) talks about the importance of pair and group work in providing opportunities for learners to use and improve language in an individual manner as well as to increase motivation. As a further refinement I always insist on mixed nationality groups, as they must communicate in the common language of English to be able to proceed in the program. Coleman (1996, p. 24) has the same idea. 'All CALL lessons are undertaken with the students working in mixed nationality pairs'. This activity like others I use in the CALL lab is one which exemplifies the advantages of using CALL for cooperative learning.

Link to the Curriculum

Set Up, Time, Resources & Equipment

With my intermediate class I will need at least 90 minutes, more likely 120, for one Treasure Hunt but this time can vary according to the students' level of English and familiarity with use of the web browser.

Role of the Teacher

Procedure

I begin by explaining what activity we are going to do and what benefits there are for the students in doing this. Explaining to the students what expected outcomes there are for them in using the computer, greatly enhances their interest and motivation in using the activity. This leads to more satisfaction on their part and should enhance the benefits of the activity as well. I include a quick review of the Internet, the WWW and Web browsing. Whilst the students gather around me and I demonstrate the controls and procedures for doing the activity. I discuss the meaning of treasure hunts, introduce the activity and explain the linguistic goals for doing the activity. I do this quite fully each time, even if most of the students have already done this before.

Next, I pass out a handout of the questions to each group on which they can write the answers. I circulate among the groups observing their progress and assisting where required when they get stuck or lost. Sometimes clarification is required as to why a certain path is required but in general when the correct answer is found the meanings become self evident. Students work at their own speed. At the intermediate level I usually devote 90 minutes to this activity. It is rare for any group to finish with much time to spare. Some groups will not be able to complete the full hunt in this time. It is usually not necessary to go through the answers at the end of the lesson because during my monitoring I have checked all the groups' answers as they are doing it. This is preferable so that the students can see where the answers have come from.

Assessment & Evaluation

Difficulties & Problems

Students' lack of Internet knowledge can be a serious impediment to the activity as well, which is why I match novices with those more experienced. If a class is made up a majority of novices it will be difficult to carry out the activity as time will be spent on learning to navigate and use the web browser rather than on the linguistic reading goals. In this case I advocate first carrying out some other lessons or activities to familiarise students with the web prior to attempting this activity. Another difficulty that can arise with students is that of student 'Luddites'. Some students will not accept the use of the Internet and computers as a method of language learning and will be disinterested or even antagonistic to this activity. Discussing the linguistic goals and advantages of this activity on the computer in detail at the beginning of the lesson, as suggested, is one way to win over some of these students.