Communicative Language Teaching in a Multimedia Language Lab

Huang, Shih-Jen
ufpadata [at] ms6.hinet.net
Liu, Hsiao-Fang
hfliu [at] cc.fy.edu.tw
Fooyin Institute of Technology (Taiwan)

1.0. Introduction

Due to the impact and influence of information technology on society and education, computer-assisted language learning is becoming the trend in foreign language teaching. Interactive computer network allows students to test the result of learning without the risk of being punished for any mistake. Learning does not have to be a pressure. Computer-assisted language learning can reduce the anxiety of students and turns out to be a positive side of learning (Gates, 1997).

The study is the extension of Huang (1997). As a result, the aim of this study tends to explore how students adjust themselves in learning English with the aid of multimedia computers and the interaction between students and multimedia computers. The literature of past research in the Communicative Language Teaching Approach and computer-assisted language learning usually look into the topics in their own domain. The research combining the two fields is not common so far, which makes this study important.

This study would like to address three questions. First, what are the similarities and differences of language teaching and learning between a traditional classroom and a multimedia language lab under the communicative framework? Second, are there any changes in the roles of teachers and students when they are in a different teaching environment from traditional classroom? Third, what are the implications of the Communicative Language Teaching Approach (CLT approach hereafter) in a multimedia computer language lab in teaching?

2.0.Review of Literature

Many researchers have helped develop the theory and practice the Communicative Language Teaching Approach (Brown, 1987; Brumfit & Johnson, 1979; Hymes, 1972; Nattinger, 1984; Nunan,1987 & 1989; Richards & Rodgers, 1986; Rossner, 1988; Savingnon, 1983; White, 1989; Yalden, 1983). The underlying theory of the CLT approach is the communicative competence (Hymes, 1972) . Students do not simply learn the linguistic structures and grammar rules. They have to learn how to use the language properly. Littlewood (1981) described the CLT approach that one of the most characteristic features of communicative language teaching is that it pay systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspects of language. In reaction to the grammar-translation and audio-lingual methods, the CLT approach emphasizes the communicative activities that involve the real use of language in daily life situation.

To combine the CLT approach with a framework of computer-assisted language learning, computer simulation seems to be the best strategy to fit both. Huang (1997) categorized computer simulations into two types: instruction-oriented and fun-oriented. Their categorization depends on their primary purpose, the nature of computer-human interaction, and the amount of control (see table below).

	Primary purpose	Computer-human interaction	User control
Instruction-oriented	Teaching & learning	Unbalanced	Limited
Fun-oriented	Motivational & entertaining	Balanced	Multiple

The primary purpose is remarkably significant as it will determine the nature of the computer simulations. The instruction-oriented computer simulation aims at teaching or helping people learn. Consequently, the primary purpose of this type of computer simulation will be giving instructions and placing the responsibility of learning on the users for most of the time and constantly monitoring them to see whether they have successfully achieved the goal. Moreover, the nature of computer-human interaction is not balanced. Users receive instructions passively, then respond, and wait further instructions. The computer becomes dominant in the interaction. Subsequently, the user's choice during the interaction is rather limited. Users do not have much choice since all available choices are predetermined. The outcome of the user's move becomes predictable. The user's limited control over the computer is partly due to the fact that users in an instruction-oriented simulation are expected to accomplish a pre-set goal in learning. The simulation guides users in a certain direction. Therefore, the user's choices are restricted by simulation's primary purpose.

Take the famous Living Books series (Broderbund) for example. Users can click on a paragraph and the text will be read out loud. When users click on any objects in the background, the object will move accompanied by sound effects. Users can continue clicking as often as they like, but the one-click-one-move interaction remains the same.

On the contrary, the primary purpose of fun-oriented simulations is to be both motivational and entertaining. Instruction in a particular subject is not the primary concern in fun-oriented simulations. This type of computer simulation tends to motivate users to get interested in the simulation itself. Entertainment is the goal. As a result, both user and computer share equal opportunities to receive instructions from and respond to each other. Furthermore, the user has multiple choice for taking control. Fewer restrictions are imposed. The user's move could lead to another multiplicity of choices and the prompting of an unexpected response from the computer.

However, the two categories of computer simulations are not mutually exclusive of each other. Rather, they would be better regarded as the two ends of a continuum. All computer simulation activities fall somewhere in between. In other words, it is very possible that a computer simulation possesses both instruction-oriented and fun-oriented features.

3.0.Methodology

Subjects

The present study was conducted in the spring semester of 1998. Subjects were 45 second-year students in the five-year program of the Department of Foreign Languages at Fooyin Institute of Technology, Taiwan. The study took place in the setting of the students "Oral Practice" course. The aim of the course in the second semester was to further expand students' English oral skills to a more composition-like style. The teacher and students met for one 2 hour session every week.

All of the students graduated from junior high school. They had completed 4 years of English study (3 years in junior high school, one year at Fooyin). Also, students were familiar with the basic operation of computers such as saving and retrieving files because they took a required computer introductory course at the first year and meanwhile were taking a required word processing course.

Setting

The instructor did not instruct and guide the English conversation practice in a classroom merely equipped with only desks, chairs, and a large blackboard. Instead, the course was carried out in a multimedia computer language lab (multimedia lab hereafter). There are fifty six Pentium class desktops in the lab. They are all networked. Two computers are set for instructor use only.

The multimedia lab shares some features with the traditional audio-lingual language lab. The teacher can broadcast the teaching materials by playing audio tapes, video-tapes, or CDs. Students practice with each other in pairs by themselves. The instructor assigns a pair of students as the model group.

The multimedia lab has some features that traditional language lab cannot compete. First, a traditional language lab does not have the function of video on demand. Students can choose an English teaching program they are interested in and learn on their pace of learning. The English learning program will just serve the student's desired goal of learning. In one sense, students easily get the individual attention from the computer. Second, the function of a multimedia lab is multiple. It can not only assume the role of a traditional language lab, but also offer teachers more powerful teaching tools with the aid of modern computer technology.

Design

The design of this study basically follows Huang (1997). The subjects were paired in groups. Students were assigned a topic for every meeting in the class. First, students began to play a computer simulation software, SimTown, and designed a simulated town on the computer. Next, they had to work on the assignment based on the assigned topic and the created city.

To be more specific, each session consisted of five stages. First, the teacher oriented students to the basic operation of computers again. Then, the teacher needed to present the simulation software. Second, after students learned how to play SimTown, they must build their own simulation town. Students were required to build the town in collaboration with the partner. They played the role of mayor of the simulated town. At this stage, students merely enjoyed the fun of playing. What they did not know was that they were establishing their own computer simulation environment for language learning. They were allowed to build the city in whichever way they desired. Third, after students finished building their city, the city itself then became the simulation world as students' learning materials. Students were required to practice an assigned topic. Fourth, students presented their simulated town to the class based on the assigned topic. The presentation was oral and in English. The student presentations could be given either individually or in groups. This presentation stage includes two parts: presentation and interaction. In addition to the presentation itself, the other class members might ask questions. It usually took place in a multimedia lab because each group simulation town would be broadcast to every student monitor screen.

Before leaving this section, it stands to reason that a short introduction of the computer simulation software employed in this study is necessary. SimTown is a computer simulation program created by Maxis/Electronic Arts. It is designed for children at the age of 3 to 10. As a result, it happens to be very suitable for EFL students at the intermediate level for the following reasons. First, the layout and graphic design are very appealing to students. They will not easily feel bored and keep being interested in the software. Second, the vocabulary in the software is easy to understand. Since the software is about a town, it provides several name list of trees, houses, buildings and the like. Students will increase their vocabulary by playing the software. Third, unlike SimCity, SimTown's counterpart for adults, every creature in this software has its name and personal information such as favorite food and sports. The player can even create his own character and track the character location in the town. It adds more realism to the software.

The challenge of this simulation is that the player must build a town from scratch and then manage it. The town will become a ghost town if it is poorly managed. The computer simulation computes every decision the player makes. The computer simulation will respond to every move the player makes.

Data Collection

The data was obtained through teacher classroom observation and a group interview of five randomly selected students.
The purpose of the interview session tended to further understand the student's attitudes toward the CLT approach and the multimedia lab. The students, including three male students and two female students, were randomly selected. The interview was conducted in Chinese at the end of the 1998 spring semester. The interview session lasted about twenty minutes in a question and answer manner and the contents of the interview were noted down. Before the group interview, the five students were briefed about the nature of the interview.

4.0. Discussion

What are the similarities and differences of language teaching and learning between a traditional classroom and a multimedia language lab under the communicative framework?

The study presents two types of communication in the multimedia lab from the perspective of the CLT teaching. First, the CLT teaching in the multimedia lab presents a large impact on the student-teacher communication. The student-teacher communication seemed to be blocked to some extent by the layout of the multimedia lab. Physically, the multimedia lab is larger than the traditional classroom. The physical distance enlarged the psychological distance. It has the tendency that the two-way communication between the teacher and the students turned to be the one-way teacher to student communication.

Second, the student-computer communication is relatively new to students. For most of the students, it was the first time for them to take so much time "talking" to a computer. Here we need to clarify the concept of communication with a computer. As mentioned above, SimTown is an interactive software. By interaction, we mean that the computer software will respond to students' move and every decision will lead to different ends. The computer software and students do not communicate with each other by " words." Instead, students need to learn another communication system. The computers communicate by means of graphic presentation, sound effect, and animated characters. Students have to learn how to communicate with the computer so that they know what move they should make next.

Next, the layouts of the traditional classroom and the multimedia lab look similar. The seats and computers are all arranged in a matrix. One important difference is that the teacher can easily reach students by walking in the aisle between two columns of seats and initiate the communication. Students can also easily rearrange the seats for the communicative activities in the classroom. It does not happen that way in a multimedia lab. All computers are fixed on the floor in the same matrix as the seat arrangement in a traditional classroom. All of sudden the teacher has the difficulty reaching students. A multimedia lab is far larger than a traditional classroom. Thus, the teacher needs to talk to students through the broadcasting system. The "intimacy" between the student and the teacher is gone. All students can see is a teacher hiding behind the control console.

Also, the communicative activities are different. In a traditional classroom, the teacher provides the topic-specific situation for students to make use of language as much as they can. Since the traditional classroom is far from any similarities to the real life situation, the teacher has to tell students to use their imagination and place themselves in that situation. Nevertheless, the multimedia lab offers the opportunity for students to visualize the situation. The computer software creates a virtual world that is very similar to the real world. It is a world that you can see.

Are there any changes in the roles of teachers and students when they are in a different teaching environment from traditional classroom?

The role of teachers and students apparently change. The teacher assumes the role of coach or director. He or she orchestrates the flow of communication for the whole class. However, the teacher must realize that to some extent a teacher has been shared with the computer. In this study, the computer software is not designed for teaching. Therefore, the intervention of computer in a teacher's teaching is not very obvious yet. In case that a learning-oriented computer software is used in a multimedia lab, teachers have to be aware that students no longer depend on the only source of knowledge. The computer software will "teach" students the knowledge that teachers are supposed to teach. As a result, a teacher must transform his role from a coach or a director under the communicative framework to a coordinator. The teacher coordinates the flow of communication between the teacher and the student as well as between the student and the computer.

On the other hand, students should elevate their learning motivation and independence on learning. Students' higher motivation is reflected by the interest of participation. When the communicative task requires the student and his partner to complete the town building task on the computer, the negotiation is initiated. Although they might not necessarily speak English when they negotiate about the town building, some students felt the need to communicate in English. Also, they felt that they could set the pace of learning. They did not have to finish the town building in one hour. Rather, they would discuss with the partner and built the town according to their pace of learning.

What are the implications of the Communicative Language Teaching Approach in a multimedia computer language lab in teaching?

First, the choice of appropriate computer software that fits into the setting of a multimedia lab is one of the keys to success. As discussed above, the setting of a multimedia lab is different from a traditional classroom. Computer software is not used at all in a traditional classroom. Textbooks and audio-tapes are the main teaching sources. They are still very helpful teaching tools in a multimedia lab. However, the medium of teaching ought to go along with the computers. The other dimension that should be taken into consideration is that the teaching tool is also different in a multimedia lab. Chalks and blackboard are obsolete. The computer is the most appropriate teaching tool in a multimedia lab. Accordingly, using computer software in a multimedia lab should be fun and interactive.

Second, orientation is import. The problems come from two aspects. One is the computer software itself. One extra job that students have to do is to learn how to manipulate the computer software. For the first few weeks, students have to become familiar with the manipulation of the computer software so that they can begin to make use of the software. Teachers should be aware of the possible frustration resulting from the unfamiliarity of computer software. The student's difficulty in the manipulation of the software usually undermine the students' interest in the class. The computer software is completely new to students. Consequently, negative interactions between students and the computer proved to be very frustrating for most students. Alexis & Trollop warns (1985) that

"less threat and anxiety were as an advantage of simulations, but the opposite can also be true, because simulations call for intensive interaction among participants, and the results of decisions and suggestions a student may make are immediately apparent to participants. Simulations can be more threatening and more anxiety provoking than traditional lecture methods." (p.185) They must experiment playing with it. However, the teacher assistance will help them smooth out the difficulty and they will be very glad to engage in all communicative activities based on the computer software.

The other is the technical problems in the management of the multimedia lab. For most of teachers, it demonstrates a major challenge. In a multimedia lab, the management demands not only the fundamental knowledge of computer, but also the advanced the knowledge of computer, which is almost impossible for the majority of English teachers. In other words, you need to be familiar with the computer software you are using in the class, answer students' technical questions, and diagnose the temporary shut-down of computer. In comparison with the work in a traditional classroom, managing a conversation class under the communicative framework in a multimedia lab is relatively demanding.

5.0. Limitations and Implication

In conclusion, on the basis of the previous discussion, this study does not present enough evidence to show that the communicative language teaching method is more effective than it is in the traditional classroom. However, this study would like to suggest some directions for teachers' reference.

First, teachers should prepare themselves for the use of modern computer technology. Foreign language training will not always take place in a traditional classroom. With the help of a setting such as a multimedia lab, foreign language training will be more efficient. Teachers should have the clear idea of how a traditional classroom is different from a multimedia lab. To serve that purpose well, this study summarizes the previous discussion as below.

	Traditional Classroom	Multimedia Lab
Layout	Matrix	Matrix
Teaching tools	Chalk, blackboard, audio tapes	Local computer network, video on demand.
Teaching materials	Textbook	Interactive computer software
Communicative activities	Imaginative role-play	Realistic computer-simulated environment
Student-teacher	Direct communication and more "intimacy"	Indirect communication and less ìintimacy"
Student-computer	Not available	Interactive

Moreover, regarding the procedures of carrying out the project, orientation is the key factor in determining success with the project. Teachers must clearly state the goals and linguistic skills students are expected to attain by playing the computer simulation. Students had to keep in mind their purpose for playing the simulation. Otherwise, they would tend to indulge themselves in simply playing. Also, since SimTown is an English-version software, it is essential that teachers get students familiarized with necessary vocabulary to play the computer simulation before the group project. Moreover, SimTown is an interactive software. That is, messages regarding the city during its stages of development could pop out in English at anytime. The computer simulation has its own "advisors" who are always willing to offer their valuable suggestions to help students run a better city. Students would also encounter difficulties building their city if they could not understand the on-line interactive messages.

Although this study shows that the CLT approach is not as successful as we had expected in a setting of the multimedia lab, this study suggests that with the fast development of computer technology, foreign language teaching in a setting other than the traditional classroom is still a promising trend.

The Internet and Foreign Language Education: Benefits and Challenges

Meena Singhal
http://www.gse.uci.edu/ed168/resume.html
The University of Arizona, USA

Introduction

Over the past few years, the Internet has emerged as a prominent new technology. The influence of such a powerful technological tool has pervaded all aspects of the educational, business, and economic sectors of our world. Regardless of one's familiarity with the Internet, it is repeatedly made reference to. News broadcasters and commercials, for example, will now provide web addresses, and even the recent movie, "The Net" was sparked by the impact of this new technology (Mike, 1996). Regardless of whether one uses the Internet or not, one must be clear about the fact that the we have entered a new information age and the Internet is here to stay.

Because the use of the Internet is widespread in numerous fields and domains, without a doubt, it also carries great potential for educational use, specifically second and foreign language education. This paper will therefore focus on the following questions: 1) What is the Internet? 2) How can various facets of the Internet be used in the second and foreign language classroom? 3) What are the benefits of employing the Internet in such a setting? 4) What are the disadvantages or obstacles the Internet presents in a second language classroom? Lastly, the implications of using the Internet in second language classrooms will be discussed. The Internet is the latest in a series of technological innovations for second language education. In order to understand the role of the Internet, it would be useful to provide a brief history of technology and language teaching, present a survey of the technological resources available to second language learners, and, finally consider the role of the Internet and its possibilities.

Technology and Foreign Language Education: A Brief History

Technology and foreign language education are no stranger to one another. In the sixties and seventies, language laboratories were being installed in numerous educational settings. The traditional language laboratory was comprised of a series of booths, each providing a cassette deck, and accompanying microphone and headphone. Teachers monitored their students' interactions by using a central control panel. The basic premise behind this technology was that if verbal behavior was modeled, and then reinforced, students would quickly learn the language in question. The language lab activities were therefore grounded in a stimulus-response behavior pattern. The more drill practice the students encountered, the faster they would learn the second language. While the language laboratory was a positive step in linking technology and language education, it was soon recognized that such activities were both tedious and boring for learners. Furthermore, the amount of student-teacher interaction was minimal, and individualized instruction was irrelevant. Besides the pedagogical deficiencies, the audio equipment was cumbersome and prone to breakdown, and had only one function-to disseminate auditory input. These factors put together led to a shift to the communicative approach to second language education, namely, computer assisted language learning.

Microcomputers and quality CALL software provided yet another medium for language learning. Its potential as both a teaching and learning tool are widely written about in the educational literature. At present, there are a variety of computer applications available including vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation tutors, spell checkers, electronic workbooks, writing and reading programs, as well as various authoring packages to allow instructors to create their own exercises to supplement existing language courses. In addition to the range of software available, CALL has also been shown to increase learner motivation (Blake, 1987). Chun and Brandl (1992) also propose that the interactive and multimedia capabilities of the computer make it an attractive teaching/learning tool. Computers can provide immediate feedback to students and students can work at an individualized pace. Software can be designed to include sound, graphics, video, and animation. Moreover, information is presented in a non-linear sequence enabling learners to select the exercises or concepts they wish to review.

Despite the advantages and widespread use of CALL, it continues to suffer from criticisms for several reasons. Many believe that learning and practicing grammar rules of a foreign language through fill-in-the-blank exercises, for example, does little to improve a speaker's ability to produce grammatically appropriate utterances (Armstrong & Yetter-Vassot, 1994). Others point out that CALL suffers from its rigidity in light of the complexities of natural languages. For example, a program designed to provide drill practice on French verb conjugation is useful for only that and nothing else. Recently, however, we are beginning to see encouraging and promising results in the area of CALL software development. Interactive video and programs which provide more authentic and communicative task-based activities are being created, which are more in line with the current theoretical and pedagogical views of learning.

What is the Internet?

While the computer is now used in some form or another in most language classrooms, and is considered standard equipment, the Internet is also gradually being introduced in the second language classroom as teachers become more familiar with it. The Internet is a confederation of thousands of computers from various sectors of society such as education, business, government and the military. It is a network of thousands of computer networks (Lewis, 1994). Each individual system brings something different to the whole (databases, library services, graphs, maps, electronic journals, etc), and the end result is a vast accumulation of information. It is a worldwide network of computers that interact on a standardized set of protocols which act independently of particular computer operating systems, allowing for a variety of access methods to the Internet. For example, the Internet can be accessed from an IBM computer in a student's home in Australia, or from a Macintosh computer at a school in Canada. It can therefore be conceived of as the equivalent of a telephone system for computers. It can be used to both exchange information through electronic mail, newsgroups, listservs, professional on-line discussion groups, and so forth, as well as to retrieve information on a variety of topics through the World Wide Web.

The Internet and Electronic Mail

Although the Internet has been available to most people, only recently have educators been realizing the potential the Internet can have in second and foreign language classrooms. The following section will therefore consider some of these potential benefits and advantages of incorporating such technology in language courses. The Internet has been used by some language instructors in creative ways - one of these innovations being use of electronic mail (e-mail), a specific feature of the Internet. Overall, e-mail can encourage students to use computers in realistic, authentic situations in order to develop communicative, and thinking skills. E-mail is easy to use and even teachers intimidated by computers can quickly become adept at using e-mail with their students. Furthermore, even timid or inhibited students can benefit from the meaningful interaction and communication e-mail makes possible. Kroonenberg (1995), for example, employed e-mail in her ESL classes at Hong Kong International School. She relates her initial experiences of working with two classes of ESL multinational students in grades 9-12, and a homogeneous group of summer school students involving Cantonese-speaking 14 and 15 year olds. The Dragon Bulletin Board System (BBS) using the TELIX communications software was established in order to allow students and teachers to send messages to each other, as well as make public entries on discussion conferences.

During the initial stages, students were logged on the system and each student created a password. Students were simply asked to write freely as in a dialogue journal. Kroonenberg (1995) believes this allows students to become familiar with the system and further allows their ideas to flow. Writing on e-mail can therefore be used to generate ideas about a topic, or can enable learners to free-write without any impositions. E-mail can also be used in various conference-type formats or to generate discussion. For example, Kroonenberg often provided students with topics of high interest in order to generate more writing. In fact, one student who was part of this project stated, "I usually get involved in the BBS because the subjects are interesting and I have a lot to say about them" (p. 25). Writing topics often involved school issues or issues that were directly relevant to the students' lives. In other conference assignments, students are the main audience. Students read entries and then respond to them via e-mail. This allows each student to express their opinion. In this manner, all opinions are voiced and heard, something which may not always occur in oral discussions in the classroom.

Chat rooms can also be carried out through e-mail. In this situation, two or more individuals can "talk" on-line about various topics or issues. For instance, language learners can be paired up and can be given a debatable topic to discuss. Such experiences, once again stimulate authentic communication and assist students in developing specific communication skills such as arguing, persuading, or defending a particular point. Listservs from around the world can offer news and discussion groups in the target language providing another source of authentic input and interaction. Cononelos and Oliva (1993) organized e-mail exchanges between entire classes of students in order to generate discussion, improve writing skills, and promote peer interaction. In this particular project, advanced level Italian students employed e-mail newsgroups to improve both their writing, as well as their knowledge of contemporary Italian society. In this manner, the teaching of culture was also facilitated through the immediate feedback and contact of L2 speakers who were interested in informing others about their culture.

E-mail can also be used to communicate long-distance with language learners in other schools, or other countries for that matter. A study exploring the potential of long-distance communication involving second language learners was carried out by Chang (1993). The goals of the study were to provide students with a real context for improving their writing, help them to expand their ideas of "content-area" reading and functional writing across cultural boundaries, make students familiar with international telecommunications, and investigate with students, the potential effects of telecommunications on literacy acquisition (Davis & Chang, 1994).

The subjects involved in the study included undergraduate students at Taiwan's National Kaohsiung Normal University (NKNU) and students at University of North Carolina at Charlotte (UNCC). The 8-week teleconference began with Prompt 1 in which students were asked to write letters to one another. In addition to personal introductions, students were asked to include a focus on their previous English language learning experiences and the difficulties associated with this. In Prompt 2 and 3, students were asked to use their textbooks on the History of English Language to report on interesting uses of English, (ie. connotations, spelling, etc). Prompts 4 and 5 asked the learners to work with sections of specific texts to comment on pronoun and lexical use, as well as syntactic structure. In the final prompt, both groups of students collected examples of English slang and idioms used in each country's films and music. Questions pertaining to the above were asked and responded to by students in each group.

Davis and Chang (1994) point out that as writers on both sides of the world shared questions and comments, jokes began to surface. Over time, the students' reading and writing began to change as well. Through surveys and informal case studies of student writing during the conference, it was found that for the most part, students' writing had improved in both fluency and organization. Surveys also indicated that students saw some carry over to their study literature, and that they had a better understanding of English usage. While the above examples illustrate a few uses of e-mail in the second and foreign language classroom, without a doubt e-mail can provide authentic communication and can foster awareness of both the language learner and the languages they are learning.

The Internet as a Teaching and Learning Tool

In addition to the communication benefits of the Internet, the Internet can also be used to retrieve and access information. The World Wide Web is therefore a virtual library at one's fingertips; it is a readily available world of information for the language learner. While the Internet offers numerous benefits to the language learner, a few such possibilities are examined here, in the context of language learning.

Perhaps one of the most essential pedagogical principles of language teaching is one that emphasizes the study of language in a cultural context. I, along with many other language instructors believe that language and culture are inextricable and interdependent; Understanding the culture of the target language enhances understanding of the language. To this end, the Internet is a valuable resource to both language teachers and learners. As discussed previously, e-mail on the Internet allows language learners to communicate with native speakers. In this manner, the Internet facilitates the use of the specific language in an authentic setting. The Internet can also be used to acquire information from language resources for a variety of purposes. For example, students can access current information from countries around the world. They can obtain geographical, historical, social/cultural, economic, and political information from the countries in which the target language is spoken. Students can read web versions of daily newspapers and same-day news reports from sources such as the French Embassy's gopher service, the daily Revue de Press (Armstrong and Yetter-Vassot, 1994). Such experiences can allow learners to participate in the culture of the target language, which in turn can enable them to further learn how cultural background influences one's view of the world.

The Internet also serves as a medium for experiencing and presenting creative works. While students can peruse the information on the Net, they can also use it as a platform for their own work such as essays, poetry, or stories. Numerous public schools, for example, are making use of the World Wide Web for publishing student work which can be accessed by other web users. Students therefore become not only consumers of content, but in fact generate the content.

As Mike (1996) describes, the use of the Internet has also been shown to promote higher order thinking skills. A language teacher, for example, may instruct learners to search for specific information. Searching the Web requires logic skills. Once information has been obtained, the results must be reviewed which requires scanning, discarding, and evaluative judgment on part of the learner. The information must be put together to make a complete and coherent whole which entails the synthesis process. Such an endeavor permits students to practice reading skills and strategies. The Internet also promotes literacy for authentic purposes, as stated previously. In addition to being a supplement to reading materials, especially current information, when students are exploring the Net, they are essentially exploring the real world. Such browsing or exploration can also lead to incidental learning as they encounter a variety of information in this way. Communication with native speakers furthers literacy development for authentic purposes, enables language learners to compare student perspectives on an issue, and allows them to practice specific skills such as negotiating, persuading, clarifying meaning, requesting information, and engaging in true-life, authentic discussion. Promotion of literacy also occurs within a social context. The interaction that results from the above situations can lead to cooperative projects and increased communication between students from all over the world, in turn leading to the development of social skills. Finally, use of the Internet can promote computer skills and the technical and conceptual experiences of using a computer.

Lastly, the Internet provides supplemental language activities which can provide students with additional practice in specific areas of language learning. These include reading tests and comprehension questions, grammar exercises, pronunciation exercises possible through the available multimedia capabilities, cloze tests, vocabulary exercises, and so forth. Students can search the Web for such sites, or teachers may recommend specific sites on the Web. Published lists are also available from various sources. For example, Paramskas (1993) offers a list of sites for both language teachers and language learners, some of which relate to issues of language learning, others which use language as a medium for discussion of culture or current affairs, and others which assist in locating native speakers.

The Internet Challenges

Up to this point in time, the above discussion has described some of the potential benefits of the Internet and how it can be used in the second or foreign language classroom. However, such a discussion would be incomplete without addressing the disadvantages or obstacles related to the use of the Internet in the language classroom. While the Internet and its various facets offer a great deal to the language learner, it is not without its problems. The nature of the Internet itself can be a disadvantage at times. When lines are busy due to many users, it may take time to access information or browse the Net and technical glitches themselves can lead to frustration. Lack of training and familiarity on part of the teachers can make it difficult to implement the Internet in the language classroom. This requires that school administrators budget for training in this area. Foreign language teachers are especially anxiety prone to computers since they often have little experience with computers. For the most part, computers in schools are used for business or computer science courses. Costs related to training, as well as on-line costs of using a provider are issues that may interfere with implementing such a technology in schools, especially in schools that have little funding. Censorship may also be a concern to language programs and instructors. The Internet offers access to all types of issues and topics, some of which are unsuitable for children, and this in itself may result in various problems. While some precautions can be taken at the present time, they are not full proof by any means. Equity issues may also present difficulties when attempting to implement such technology in the classroom. As the commercial sector begins to assume a more prominent role in the Internet's infrastructure, rural and inner-city schools, already hard-pressed to provide Internet access, may find it less affordable. This is certainly discouraging for both language teachers and students in such educational settings (Mike, 1996). Many institutions such as these may also not have the computers or computing facilities necessary to implement such type of technology.

Implications and Conclusion

Despite these limitations and obstacles, it must be realized that the Internet's educational potential is immense. Although electronic, the Internet is an entity related to literacy - people still interact with it entirely through reading and writing. For this reason alone, the Internet is a technology that will, without a doubt, have significant implications for both teaching and learning. So what does this imply for language teachers and learners? Teachers must become familiar with using the Internet and its various functions such as e-mail. They must also learn how to use specific search tools in order to access information, search for lesson plans, or material and ideas to supplement their lessons. Lastly, language teachers must learn now to transfer files from Internet sites to their own computer and vice versa. Obtaining information or literature on the Internet, either through the Net itself, through books, or by attending workshops and courses will further assist this process. To avoid facing the same difficulties or problems associated with use of the Internet, teachers can ask students to keep track of problems that arise during use. In essence, language teachers must take the plunge and approach the Internet as a learning experience themselves. The more enthusiastic and more knowledgeable language teachers are, the more successfully they can implement Internet in the language classroom. For the language learner, the Internet offers a world of information available to students at the touch of a button. While it must be recognized that the Internet cannot replace the language classroom or the interaction between the language teacher and student, if offers a vast amount of information and lends itself to communication possibilities that can greatly enhance the language learning experience.

Certainly at this point in time, several questions need to be asked to guide future research in this area. How can use of the Internet correspond to the communicative or pedagogical goals of language teaching? How will the Internet and its related facets assist language learners in functioning in the global community? What will the real impact of the Internet in foreign language classrooms be? How can the Internet be used more effectively along side the present language curriculum? While these questions have been examined to some degree, researchers and language educators must further investigate and implement this technology to provide others with guidelines in this area.

Without a doubt we are in the center of a "monumental technological paradigm shift, one which will eventually change the way that all instructors teach and the way students learn" (Jensen, 1993). While technology should not take over the language classroom, it must be embraced in order to allow educators to do those things which they are unable to do themselves, or those which will improve what is currently being done in the classroom. As we approach the next century, it is essential that we make informed decisions about how the Internet can be successfully integrated into the language classroom. If we as educators do not rise to the challenge - who will?

Watching Movie Trailers in the ESL Class

Neil Heffernan
hefneil[at]hotmail.com
Ritsumeikan University (Kyoto, Japan)

The importance of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) in today's ESL/EFL classes cannot be understated. However, finding specific sites to use in class can be a delicate process. This paper outlines the techniques that can be used in class with a movie trailers website.

Introduction

Computer-based language teaching (or Computer Assisted Language Learning-CALL) has become widely popular in recent years. In fact, a review of most language journals written lately demonstrates that CALL has dominated the discussion on language teaching. Using computers for teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (ESL or EFL) has been delineated at length in the literature in recent years. ESL and EFL teachers seem to be well aware of the need for CALL in today's language classrooms (Edwards, 2002).

The Internet has become a very powerful tool in language teaching, and most teachers are (or should be) keenly aware of the need to use it in the classroom. Proof of this exists in the research of Cummins (1998), who noted that using computers give students a wide range of learning options. Bicknell (1999) stated that using the Internet and its applications act as a motivational apparatus which gives students the chance to use all four language skills (reading, writing, speaking and listening) whilst having the added bonus of fostering computer literacy. However, despite the common feeling that teachers should be incorporating CALL into their classrooms, many teachers are still reticent to do so. This may be due in part to any of the following factors: teachers' and students' own limited computer skills; a lack of typing skills; a general fear of computers and the difficulty in learning how to correctly use them; or the lack of adequate facilities in schools. This last point causes obvious problems to those who do not have access to a room full of computers with the appropriate tools for listening (headphones) and high-speed Internet connections.

The Internet also allows students to connect with each other in ways they normally would not be able to do. Web-based activities such as message boards, chat rooms, email, and discussion groups provide ESL and EFL learners with a healthy forum in which to communicate with others. In fact, Healy (2000) noted that the above activities give learners a "direct and immediate communication between peers while using genuine language". Warschauer's study (1997) noted greater participation by so-called "shy" students when using the Internet as a language-learning tool. These are no doubt important elements of language learning; points that teachers need to be aware of in their classes. Bearing this in mind, this paper aims to set out a clear and useful use for one such web-based activity that allows learners of English as a Second or Foreign Language to broaden their horizons while using genuine language, which is clearly a critical element of all CALL. The activities outlined here are unique in that they allow learners to interface with a computer, all the while gathering useful information that will help them learn English.

The use of films in ESL and EFL classes has been a popular method of teaching for many years. However, how useful are films if they are not clearly understood by our students? Naturally, watching full-length films is not always the best way to spend classroom time with our students. So, while searching for better ways to bring Hollywood to the classroom, I stumbled upon a great site that presents movie clips, or trailers that ended up being very beneficial in my CALL classroom.

Specifics of the Site

The objectives of the lesson were twofold: to enhance student knowledge of the capabilities of the Internet through the use of movie trailers; and the use of movie trailers as an educational tool for improving students' understanding of spoken English. The site discussed here can be found at http://www.apple.com/trailers/, and is updated with new additions to its archives very regularly. The site is presented in an easy manner with eight "main" movies appearing at the top of the screen in picture form that can be accessed by clicking on the picture. The rest of the site is divided into the different companies that distribute films (mostly in the United States). There are well over 100 movie trailers on the site at any given time, and they can be accessed by simply clicking on the title of the film. Most of them are new releases or previews to upcoming movies. In fact, some trailers appear on the site up to six months before their release date. After the viewer clicks on the film of his or her choice, some basic information about the film appears, such as the director, cast, genre and the web address of the official movie site. The viewer can then watch the trailer by choosing the size (small, medium or large) that he or she wants. Since the trailers are anywhere from one minute to two-and-a-half minutes in length, students tend to focus their skills on comprehension to get the most out of the exercise.

Setting the Lesson Up

Doing the lesson obviously requires access to a computer lab. As stated in the introduction, one of the main impediments to doing this lesson will be the lack of equipment at some facilities. For the lesson to work best, a high-speed Internet connection is needed (especially for large classes, as the nature of the site means it will inevitably be slower with heavy traffic), as are headphones and the Apple Quicktime Plugin software. Most newer computers should be already equipped with this software, but a glance through your school's system will help before attempting to do this lesson. The trailers are suitable for students of all ages, and there is no offensive language or images included in the trailers.

Pre-viewing Activity

To start, a conversation of the types of films students enjoy watching is a beneficial activity to get them thinking about movies in general. Most ESL/EFL learners tend to enjoy watching movies, but watching them without the subtitles of their native language can be a challenging task. Therefore, teaching some basic concepts before watching the trailers will help. Students who are interested in movies may already have some basic knowledge of the vocabulary on the site and most of the movie sites. However, for those who do not have this pre-existing knowledge, an outline of the following terms may be useful.

Vocabulary on Apple Quicktime Trailer Site

• Trailer
• Exclusive
• Plot/Story
• Genre (Drama, Suspense, Thriller, Comedy, Horror, Love story)
• Cast
• Director
• Rating (R, PG, PG-13)

The Lesson

Students are given a handout with the following instructions:

Choose one movie trailer from the website http://www.apple.com/trailers/, and watch it. (There is a clickable link at the end of this article.) After you watch it, answer the following questions:

• What movie did you choose?
• Why did you choose this trailer?
• Who are the actors and actresses in this movie? Who is the director?
• What (if anything) was attractive about the trailer to you? In other words, what did you like or dislike about the trailer?
• After watching the trailer again, outline the story or plot of the movie. This can be done by watching the trailer to gain an understanding of what the movie is about. If the trailer does not give enough information about the plot of the movie, then describe what the trailer did show.
• Would you recommend this movie to your friends? Why or why not? Give reasons for your answers.

Post-viewing Activity

Naturally, students may tend to view more than one trailer, and then choose the one they want to work on. Therefore, after they have chosen their one trailer, they should start working on the six questions above. There are two ways of doing this: one is to simply have students write their responses to the questions and hand them in for a class assignment or homework; another is to employ a more interactive type of activity. For teachers looking to keep the interactive aspect of the lesson intact, set up a class message board where students can post messages to each other. (For those institutions without a class message board, students can do the following part of the activity in pairs, or groups). Students then find another person in the class who has chosen the same trailer as them by posting a message on the board. Once the students find another person (or more than one person) who has chosen the same trailer as them, they can work on the answers to the six questions together. This is done on the message board by conversing about the answers to the questions. If some students cannot find a partner who has chosen the same trailer as them, the teacher should encourage them to find other students who have viewed that trailer, or at least have an interest in it. The whole point of this message board conversation is to encourage a conversation in English about the trailers viewed on the site. By discussing their answers to the questions, students are applying their English abilities to complete a focused task on what they have watched on the Apple Quicktime website.

Discussion and Conclusion

The use of the Internet is undoubtedly a useful tool for our students. However, because of the sheer volume of information available, the Internet can be an overwhelming experience for teachers and students alike. Thus, it is vitally important for teachers to be well prepared with specific sites for use going into class. By doing this, teachers can harness the power of the Internet and create meaningful lessons for their students. The activity described here attempts to give students an interesting lesson that they will hopefully gain something from. It is much easier for students to enjoy a lesson they are actually interested in, than having material forced upon them.

The activity outlined here is an extremely useful one, with students regularly reporting their enjoyment of it. Because of considerable student interest in movies, learners always seem to benefit from watching the trailers that appeal to them and discussing their thoughts of them afterward. This activity will be of benefit to any ESL/EFL program that has the required equipment. Further, because of the large amount of movies on the site, there are trailers to suit all levels of students. Indeed, some trailers have limited dialogue to them (as the actual movie is not near completion yet), and would be easy for most, if not all, students to understand. Higher-level students can also gain from this activity, as there are plenty of longer, more in-depth trailers (with a lot of dialogue) on the site.

Online Strategic Interaction:
ESL Role-Playing via Internet Relay Chat

Christopher M. Colburn
dude [at] bert.eds.udel.edu
http://bert.eds.udel.edu/~dude/
Department of Linguistics, University of Delaware

Introduction

As the age of computer-assisted and adaptive language learning become real concerns of the modern language teacher, it has become necessary to investigate the ways in which the computer can enhance existing teaching methods to improve the overall quality of language instruction. Many researchers have attempted to add their own electronic components to their favorite exercises.

Strategic Interaction (SI) (Di Pietro 1987) was no exception to the electronic bandwagon. In the 1980s, Di Pietro and Arena proposed a number of writing exercises based on his paradigm (cf. Arena and Di Pietro, press pending.) The original concept involved the practice of writing using terminals connected via a PLATO mainframe (Dyer 1983.) With the demise of mainframe technology, Arena sought a modern solution for implementing these exercises.

The emergence of the Internet in the mid 1990s provided a viable way to participate in these exercises in both classroom and distance-learning situations. This paper describes the how, where, and why of implementing Strategic Interaction over local-area and wide-area networks. This description includes not only the goals and merits of the SI writing exercises, but also provides the technical background for those who want to make the exercises work in a local or global electronic classroom environment.

Background

Strategic Interaction: An Overview

Strategic Interaction (SI) refers to a teaching method that was devised by Robert Di Pietro at the University of Delaware (cf. Di Pietro 1987.) SI involves the use of interactive scenarios to foster better communicative competence in the target language. This overview will cover the issues of student roles in the exercise, the types of scenarios that are used, and the three stages that take place in SI exercises.

The SI exercises take place in three stages, or phases. The first stage is known as the Planning stage. During the planning stage, the instructor or moderator splits the class into two or more groups. Each of these groups is given a different role to play within a given scenario. The students are than given some time in which to plan their given role in the scenario. Scenarios usually come from one of four types (Di Pietro 1987: 48-58):

1. The basic scenario is the Two-Role type, which is suitable for one encounter. In a group situation, there are two groups, and each group has a spokesperson who interacts on behalf of the whole.
2. Multiple-Role scenarios have more than two direct roles. Di Pietro notes that this type of scenario is only useful for all parties if each role has a distinct reason for being involved. "Background-only" characters are not a good idea, as they do not promote direct interaction among the multiple roles. One idea hinted at by Arena and supported by this author involves using the teacher/moderator as a background character. This can be advantageous for moving the scenario along, especially with less-advanced groups. This character can provide assistance or inject additional tension into the scenario as warranted by the students' performance.
3. In Group scenarios, all students react in their own ways to an event or situation that involves or affects everyone in the group. This lends itself to use on the Internet, since everyone can make their thoughts known to everyone else (over the IRC network) without anyone's contribution getting lost in the conversation. This is especially important for the more traditionally quiet speakers in the class, who are placed on a more equal footing when presented with the Internet-based classroom.
4. Open-Ended scenarios promote the development of long-term roles and interrelated episodes that may span a number of class sessions. Di Pietro notes that these scenarios are good for showing the relationships among different events that take place in a target culture.

An example of the kinds of scenarios given to each group can be found at http://iteslj.org/Articles/Colburn-SI_on_IRC/example.html. Note that the models on that page were originally conceived to facilitate the Two-Role scenario mentioned above. The exercises, however, can be easily adapted to support any of the above scenario types. For more examples of appropriate scenarios, consult Di Pietro 1987 (which is a must-read for those who wish to make extensive use of SI in the classroom, electronic or otherwise.)

In these exercises, the roles given to the students are different from those in a drama exercise. First, the scope of the role is only limited by the students' abilities. The role is dynamic, and never plays out the same way twice. Also, the roles given to each group are unknown to the members of the other group(s) until the Performance stage of the exercise. This is important to the theme of the exercise, because the roles given to each group are slightly different in focus and/or goals. These differences produce a "twist," or point of conflict, that appears in the Performance stage.

Once the students have prepared their roles, a spokesperson is appointed, and the second, or Performance stage begins. If the scenarios are well-constructed, the "twist" in the scenario appears quickly. As students' expectations of what they were going to say quickly disappear, the students must attempt to maintain communication in the target language while trying to make their case and/or resolve the conflict that has arisen. The goal of the exercises is for the students to work creatively in the target language to resolve the conflict successfully. The end result is that no scenario has the same ending: the outcome depends on the students' abilities to resume and/or maintain communication in the face of a breakdown. By forcing the students to deal with a conflict for which they are not prepared, students are encouraged to think "on their feet" in a manner that they will need to survive in an L2 environment. If the spokesperson needs any help with issues of communication, he or she is free to return to the group, who can then make suggestions that the spokesperson can use in the scenario. The Performance stage continues until the instructor or moderator observes a successful resolution to the scenario, until communication breaks down, or until time constraints force an end to the performance.

The third stage of the exercise is known as the Debriefing stage. At this point in the exercise, the instructor or moderator regroups the class, and discusses the events of the Performance stage. There may be a discussion of discourse, cultural, or grammar problems that appeared. During this stage, the teacher can also provide feedback on how to improve communication and/or performance at key points in the scenario, so the students will be better prepared to perform in future scenarios.

SI's Relationship with Second Language Acquisition and CALL

Part of the original rationale for using CALL in the United States was to provide supplemental exposure to the target language in environments where contact with native speakers and/or instructors was limited, either due to geography or large class sizes. It was hoped that an increase in comprehensible input (cf. Krashen, 1982 and Krashen, 1985) would allow students to progress more quickly.

From the perspective of writing, Ellis (1987) looked at how writing proficiency, like other forms of linguistic competence in a second language, progressed over what he called the interlanguage continuum. When a student first begins to acquire a new language, the student applies what he or she already knows about language to the new one. In effect, his or her writing may use the lexical items of the target language, but uses the structures and idioms of the native (or other second) languages (cf. Colburn 1992.) As the student acquires more of the target language, these L1 structures tend to disappear as the student begins to produce structures that more closely approximate the target language.

These topics relate to Strategic Interaction in that one of the goals of the method is to force the student to use the structures of the target language in a pressure situation. The dialogue provides spontaneous input in manageable chunks. It also allows the student to work with the target language in a group situation that can foster improvement for all of the group members, whether or not they are actors in the scenarios.

Recent Trends in CALL: Transitioning to the Internet

A number of researchers have undertaken work on Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) and Computer Adaptive Teaching (CAT) as computers have become more widespread in both homes and schools. Since the early 1980s, researchers have come up with a myriad of exercises to improve communicative competence in foreign language classes. Kenning and Kenning have noted that computer-based interactions "and normal language do not seem to go together very well" (Kenning and Kenning 1990: 63.) Most of the research that they did, however, dealt with the interaction between a computerized "tutor" and a single student. Ahmad and his colleagues mention the importance of CALL in developing writing skills (Ahmad et al. 1985:105,) but make no reference to interactive writing skills between groups of students.

To some extent, we find that literature on CALL in the 1980s makes few references to student interaction over networks, simply because of its impracticality at that time. This was a result of the facts that wide-area networking was far too slow at that time to facilitate interactive written conversations in a reasonable amount of time, and because long-distance communication of this type was severely limited, since the Internet as we now know it did not exist on a widespread scale (and ran at much slower speeds as well.)

One point in the literature, however, shows that CALL, even in the Strategic Interaction context, was being used on local-area networks in the early 1980s. In her dissertation, Pat Dyer recounts the use of the PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automated Teaching Operations) system to implement a number of SI exercises at all levels of instruction at the University of Delaware's English Language Institute (ELI.) The system was used with some success as a component of the Institute's intensive program of English instruction (cf. Dyer 1983: 65-85.)

One of the advantages of the PLATO system was its ability to handle lessons and instructions that were pre-programmed for use on the local network by the students. From a standpoint of current technology, however, this system is not as practical as it once was. The networking and use of the mainframe was confined to a limited area. With the advent of the desktop PC, it became necessary to provide a package that could be used not only while connected to a mainframe, but while connected to a larger network, such as a campus-wide LAN or the Internet. This would allow the students to work in larger groups, and over greater distances, and on a number of operating systems. This need led to the development of the Internet-based SI exercises.

SI on the Intra/Internet: Technical Aspects

When Lou Arena the author with instructions to adapt SI for modern machines, he was presented with limited resources: two Apple PowerBooks and no Internet access. From these beginnings, SI exercises were adapted for LAN use. Based on this original conception, the idea was then expanded for use on the global Internet, as well as for use on multiple platforms. The original conception, as well as the expanded version, are explained below. Note: this section may be more appropriate for the IT managers in the audience, but will also be helpful to the teacher who has to implement this on his or her own.

SI Exercises on a MacOS-based LAN

For the original concept, the lack of Internet access forced the use of AppleTalk networking to connect the two computers. For simplicity's sake, the two computers were linked through the use of an RJ-11 cable attached to two LocalTalk adaptors, which were plugged into the serial port of each machine. Because of the speed limitations experienced on a LocalTalk network, experience has shown that an Ethernet-based AppleTalk network is more effective, and should be used if available. Once AppleTalk networking was enabled on both machines, the only remaining tasks involved supplying the scenarios, as well as the medium of written conversation.

Each computer was supplied with text versions of their respective scenarios. Generic text files were supplied so that any text editor could open the files for viewing. Since all MacOS-compatible machines come with a copy of the SimpleText text editor, it is then easy to open the files when instructed. Note: if the machines in use are running a Language-Kit enabled version of the MacOS (such as the Chinese Language Kit or the Japanese Language Kit,) it is MOST important that the teacher supply an English-language version of SimpleText (or their favorite text editor) for use in the exercises. The versions of SimpleText supplied with these kits are enabled for reading two-byte languages, and they will interpret raw English ASCII text as gibberish.

To provide the conversation environment, the author discovered the ChatNet shareware program, from ELS, Inc. This program can be used freely on an AppleTalk network to link up to three machines in a chat environment, similar to that found on IRC (Internet Relay Chat,) or in a chat room on America Online. A copy of ChatNet is installed on each of the client machines. Each machine is configured as a different user (i.e. one username for each group taking place in the scenario.)

Multi-platform SI Exercises:
Internet-based IRC with WWW Support

The specifics of using these exercises over the Internet are less specific, because there are a number of ways to implement the necessary materials. Some guidelines, however, are presented for teachers who want to use these exercises in a multi-platform or distance-learning environment.

The first concern is that the students' machines are connected to the Internet, either via modem or direct connection. With Internet connections, the physical locations of the students are irrelevant. The only difference involves how the conversational groups collaborate. If the group is in one classroom, they can collaborate verbally. If they are not in the same room, then they can collaborate and prepare their initial roles via a separate chat channel.

Next, the scenarios are presented to each group via a WWW browser. In this way, each student can retrieve the scenario for his/her group from a central location, thus obviating the need for each student to download specialized software for the exercises. Each group is given a different URL from which to retrieve the scenario.

Most importantly, the students need software on which to participate in the chat environment. Internet Relay Chat (IRC) clients are varied in features and performance, depending on the platform. Examples of clients that are usable for this exercise are listed here as guidelines, and not necessarily as requirements or endorsements. Any program with similar functionality can be used. For Windows, programs such as mIRC should suffice. For the MacOS, the author has used IRCle and ChatNet (although the latter needs to be registered to be used for more than ten minutes per session.) For Unix and appropriate clones, ircII, BitchX, cIRCus, and zIRCon have worked well, although ircII and BitchX may require multiple terminal sessions for best results. Any of these software packages are available from the popular Internet software archives for each respective computing platform.

Scenarios in Action

The following provides guidelines for using SI exercises in an online environment. Procedures that have been used on an AppleTalk LAN are provided. In addition, general guidelines for using the exercises on the Internet are also presented.

With the LAN solution, only two computers are required (one for each group.) The teacher then instructs the students to choose one of the scenario files by opening it in the English version of SimpleText. The students view the situation file, and prepare their roles in another file in the text editor. When they are ready, the group can log onto the network to begin the Performance stage of the exercise.

Over the Internet, the students receive their instructions via a central web page. There they are instructed to access the appropriate scenario pages, and to log onto the appropriate chat channels via their preferred IRC client. The group prepares its role over one channel (which could be called the Planning channel.) When they feel sufficiently prepared, they appoint a "spokeswriter," and all students log onto a common channel (the Performance channel) to watch the spokespeople perform their scenarios.

Then, the students act out their roles by typing their lines into the computer. When conflicts arise, the students are forced to deviate from their pre-planned roles in order to come to a resolution. At times, this involves a number of strategies that are only used in a "communication breakdown" situation. In this way, the outcome of a scenario is different for each participating group, due to the lack of preparation inherent in creating the "twist."

If the spokeswriters cannot continue the interaction on their own, they are allowed to collaborate with their respective groups in order to get help. Over a LAN, the group helps the spokeswriter verbally, while over the Internet, the groups can provide written feedback to the spokeswriter over the Planning channel. In this way, the scenario is solved through a group effort, and all of the students get to practice their communication skills.

When the scenario is finished, the Debriefing phase can take place in one of two ways. On a LAN, the students can regroup in a classroom for a traditional debriefing. For a local class, this is advantageous, but for an Internet-based class, this is not feasible. After the Performance stage, the students can migrate to a Debriefing channel for the final stage of the exercise. On this channel, the moderator or instructor can conduct an online chat session that provides feedback for student performance during the scenario.

Advantages of the Exercise

Communicative competence is promoted through the Strategic Interaction exercises. Scenarios promote the kind of "on-your-feet" strategic thinking and communication skills usually associated only with acquisition-based environments. Specifically, these exercises develop a number of skills and perspectives not offered by other types of writing tasks. The major benefits to student writing occur in four main (interrelated) areas:

1. Linguistic Competence: grammar and writing skills are developed and practiced on a more autonomic level, since it is harder to focus consciously on form when trying to think quickly;
2. Sociolinguistic Competence: Role playing develops discourse skills and strategies not usually practiced in a written environment;
3. Strategic Competence: network-based scenarios present a new way of trying to restore communication when it breaks down: strategies for restoring communication, and the duration of their effectiveness, become apparent for the respective scenarios;
4. Discourse Competence: Scenarios enable students to practice cohesive devices in writing in a fast-paced environment: students learn the limitations and applications of transitions to prolong the communicative exchange.

Using Internet-Based Children's Literature to Teach EFL

Larry J. Mikulecky
Mikuleck(at)Indiana.edu
Indiana University, Bloomington (Bloomington, IN, USA)

Introduction

Even though it has been nearly twenty-five years since scholars began exhorting EFL and ESL teachers to use children’s and young adult literature to teach adult learners (Flickinger, 1984), the practice has never become wide-spread. During the past two decades, research has continued to document the benefits of extensive L2 reading within one’s proficiency range (e.g. children's and young adult literature).

One likely explanation for this puzzling situation of documented benefits but little actual use is the problem of access (i.e. locating a sufficient range of simple literature in English in a form that is economically feasible). Goshen (1997), an EFL teacher with experience teaching in Lebanon, Syria and the United Arab Emirates, has noted that expense is a major hurdle. This is especially true if a teacher must order multiple copies of several different titles needed to address a range of student interests and language ability levels. Shipping costs can double the already high cost of books.

While this was clearly a problem in 1997, when Goshen first wrote of it, a growing wealth of children's and young adult literature available over the Internet can help overcome the problems of access and expense. Free and inexpensive Internet resources can now allow teachers to more easily use children’s and young adult literature to gain the benefits of extensive L2 reading for their students.

Evidence Supporting the Extensive Reading of Comprehensible Material

If the only time one uses English is during English class, it is very difficult to secure the practice time and develop the vocabulary needed for rapid growth in English proficiency. During the past two decades, research has consistently documented the benefits of extensive reading in L2 to the development of second language mastery. Waring and Nation (2004) summarize and synthesize nearly three dozen studies that demonstrate and examine the benefits of extensive reading in L2 to improvement of vocabulary, grammar, reading comprehension and writing.

In order for benefits to occur, the reader must already understand the majority of vocabulary on a page. For beginning and intermediate level students, this means relatively simple language such as that found in children's and young adult literature. Laufer (1989) and Liu and Nation (1985) demonstrated that unless a reader has control of at least 95% of words on a page, it is unlikely that he or she will be able to use context to guess the meaning of unknown words. Subsequent research (Hsueh-Chao and Nation, 2000), indicates that previous mastery of even higher percentages of vocabulary (i.e. 98% or more) is associated with the most benefit in new vocabulary growth.

These percentages correspond with similar percentages presented in the 1940’s by Betts (1946) for mastery levels in L1 reading of English. Betts suggested using vocabulary mastery as one indicator of a reader's independent, instructional or frustrational reading level.
Independent: 99% of words already known for fluent, enjoyable reading.
Instructional: 98%-95% of words known and some instructional support such as teacher suggestions, vocabulary explanations, illustrations etc. needed for benefit.
Frustrational: Below 95% of words known can damage fluency and lead to disruptions in comprehension strategies.

These suggested levels tend to match most of our experiences as readers. Few of us willingly continue reading books if we need to use a dictionary to understand 15-20 new words on every page (i.e. 5% of the words of a paperback book page with 300-400 words), though we can usually continue to read fluently if we encounter only three to four new words per page. In American elementary schools, teachers show children how to use the "five-finger method" when selecting books from the library. For each unknown word a child finds on a page (usually containing about 100 words of print), the child raises a finger. If five fingers are raised before completing the page, the book is probably too difficult and the child should select another.

Depending upon the difficulty of material to be read and the technical complexity of academic and professional material, scholars differ on the number of words and word families a reader needs to master before benefiting from extensive reading (Waring and Nation, 2004). To benefit in vocabulary growth from extensive reading of simple, non-graded text, previous mastery of 2000-3000 L2 words is suggested as a minimal level. This is roughly comparable to the vocabulary level of an average 9-10 year-old L1 speaker. It also corresponds to the vocabulary level of many high school and beginning college level EFL learners.

Finding Simple, Accessible and Inexpensive Readings in English

As has been mentioned above, children's and young adult literature in English has been recommended for more than two decades as a potential source of reading material for extensive reading. It is only relatively recently, however, that the Internet has helped to overcome problems of access and expense.

There are four web-sites that are particularly rich in extensive and accessible children's and young adult literature and which have demonstrated a stable existence (as much as anything on the Internet can be called stable). These sites (described in the attached Appendix in more detail with URL’s current in October 2007) provide a wide range of materials, topics, difficulty levels and sophisticated illustrations--sometimes accompanied by oral readings with animations. Even if one's EFL students don't have easy access to the Internet, it is possible for teachers with Internet access to download and print out materials for student use.

Ways to Use the Resources

The main point of using these resources to increase student practice time with English outside the classroom. Though some class time might be used to show web-sites to EFL students and model how to use the stories, the majority of time should be spent by students doing assigned or volunteer reading on their own.

There are some things the teacher can do to make the reading experience more productive for students. For example, the teacher can either match students to books at appropriate difficulty level or teach EFL students to use their own version of the five-finger method. The research cited earlier in this article indicates the most benefit is gained when students already know 98% or more of the words on a page. In addition, the teacher can produce questions to guide readers' attention and focus while reading. These same questions can be used by groups of two to three students for oral discussion after reading the same story.

Below are some assignment ideas and choices that can foster extensive reading by EFL students. These assignments might be spread over several weeks.

• Ask students with access to younger relatives to read and teach the English stories to their younger relatives.
• Ask future teachers of English to read simple stories and then design lessons for younger students.
• Ask students to keep a list of what they have read, brief summaries of stories or chapters, and new vocabulary learned.
• Have students do presentations on stories to "sell" them to other students.
• Have students create their own simple stories in English, possibly with illustrations.

The key elements here are fostering more practice reading English outside the classroom and finding enough variety of materials so all students can read something they can understand. In the last few years, the availability of children’s and young adult literature on the Internet has exploded and these resources will continue to grow. In many places, access to Internet technology has become easier than access to resources for purchasing printed books. For teachers and students with Internet access, it is time to reconsider how English reading practice might be expanded through the use of online children's and young adult literature.

Using Technology to Assist in Vocabulary Acquisition and Reading Comprehension

Andreea I. Constantinescu
anconst {a t} u.washington.edu
University of Washington, (Seattle, Washington, USA)

Vocabulary plays an important part in second language acquisition and academic achievement. This paper will present several possibilities to enhance vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension with the help of technology.

Introduction

The role that vocabulary knowledge plays in second and foreign language acquisition has long been neglected. However, vocabulary is currently receiving increased emphasis in the language teaching curriculum. This is due to several reasons, such as the influence of comprehension-based approaches to language development, the research efforts of applied linguists, and the exciting possibilities opened-up by the development of computer-based language corpora (Nunan, 1999: 103). Moreover, it is now increasingly pointed out that there is a reciprocal, well-documented relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. As Tozcu and Coady (2004: 473) point out, learning vocabulary is an important aspect of L2/FL acquisition and academic achievement and is vital to reading comprehension and proficiency, to which it is closely linked.

This paper will focus on various possibilities to enhance vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension with the help of technology. First, it starts with a brief overview of the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. It continues with a presentation of different technological aids that trigger improved vocabulary acquisition and reading proficiency, with a focus on annotations. Finally, it proposes several teaching principles related to incorporating technology in the language classroom to benefit vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension.

Vocabulary Acquisition and L2/FL Reading Comprehension

Reading is an active skill that involves the reader, the text, and the interaction between the two. The acquisition of reading skills is a very important aspect of first (L1) as well as second (L2) or foreign language (FL) literacy. Reading in a L2 or FL is a dynamic and interactive process, during which learners make use of a variety of skills and strategies, combined with background knowledge, L1-related knowledge and real-world knowledge to arrive at an understanding of written material (Aebersold and Field, 1997: ix).

Many variables play a role in L2/FL reading comprehension. Among the most important are L1 literacy, the use of both top-down and bottom-up strategies, activating background knowledge, the use of various reading skills (e.g. summarizing, identifying the main idea, distinguishing between facts and opinions), and vocabulary knowledge (Egbert, 2005: 21-22).

Several researchers have argued that vocabulary plays a major part in reading proficiency. Thus, Grabe (1991) stresses the important role of vocabulary as predictor of overall reading ability, and Nation (1990) states that effective L2 /FL instruction should also concentrate on cultivating vocabulary (both cited in Anderson, 1999: 25). Chanier and Selva also stress the fact that vocabulary knowledge is a key factor in reading comprehension (1998: 489) and so does Groot (2000), who argues that functional L2 reading proficiency requires mastery of a considerably large number of words.

Aside from knowing how to use the appropriate reading strategies, Grabe (1991, as cited in Butler-Pascoe and Wiburg, 2003: 124) argues that fluent L2/FL readers need to know about 2,000 to 7,000 words and sometimes even more if they want to reach native-like fluency. Similarly, Groot (2000: 62) argues that an adequate understanding of academic texts requires a vocabulary of at least 7,000 words. Generally, L2/FL readers need to recognize approximately 95 per cent of the words in a given text in order to comprehend its meaning and they need to know the different meanings of words according to context, as well as words' grammatical properties. In summary, it can be pointed out that reading and vocabulary are inter-related, in other words, good readers have a rich vocabulary, and similarly, a rich vocabulary is one of the key elements that ensure reading proficiency.

Benefits of CALL for Vocabulary Acquisition and Reading Comprehension

It has been increasingly argued that computer technologies can support learning in a number of ways. Many features of the computer are considered to enhance vocabulary development and reading comprehension: multimedia is one of them. Multimedia refers to computer-based systems that use various types of content, such as text, audio, video, graphics, animation, and interactivity. The key concepts of multimedia are thus 'computer-based' and 'interactive'.

Some research assessed the general value of ESL / EFL software programs for improving reading comprehension and vocabulary (AlKahtani, 1999; Busch, 2003; McGlinn and Parrish, 2002). More recent studies examined the effect of extended use of computers on reading achievement, the effect of computer instruction on reading rate and reading comprehension; the effects of multimedia software on reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition, as well as the relationship between vocabulary development and reading comprehension (Singhal, 1998: 2-6). Most research on vocabulary acquisition and CALL has focused on the effects of multimedia glosses, and the same is true for reading comprehension, since vocabulary and reading are closely and reciprocally related. This reciprocal relationship also accounts for the fact that many research studies on vocabulary development and CALL also examine reading comprehension, and vice versa.

Multimedia Glosses and Vocabulary Development

One of the first to examine the effects of multimedia glosses for vocabulary development were Lyman-Hager and Davis (1996), who integrated a computer program into the French foreign language curriculum and discussed vocabulary acquisition and students' glossing choices for 262 intermediate level students studying French. Two conditions were used in this study: computerized reading and non-computerized reading using an excerpt of Oyono's 'Une Vie de Boy'. Both groups had access to glosses: the computer group had access to multimedia annotations, whereas the control group could consult printed text with the same glosses. As to whether or not computer treatment offered significant benefits to FL students, the results of the written recall protocol indicated that the experimental group who used the computer program to read the text significantly outperformed the control group who used the glossed reading in the print form.

Similarly, in an article exploring multimedia annotations and vocabulary acquisition, Chun and Plass (1996a) present the positive results of three studies with students in their second year of German who used Cyberbuch, a multimedia application offering various types of annotations (picture, text, video). The goals of this study included the exploration of incidental vocabulary learning, and the examination of the effectiveness of multimedia annotations on vocabulary acquisition. The results of this case study supported previous research on the effectiveness of different types of annotations, according to which visual imagery was found to help in learning and retention of new foreign words. Moreover, visual multimedia advance organizers were found to help not only recalling new words, but also act as facilitators of reading comprehension, which stresses the close relationship between vocabulary and reading (Chun and Plass, 1996b: 512). Text+picture annotations produced the best results in the recall protocol focusing on reading comprehension.

Using Multimedia for Vocabulary-building

However, multimedia is not used only for glossing texts. Multimedia is a central component of good computer-assisted skill-building software. Thus, Chanier and Selva (1998) stressed the benefits of multimedia support for learning L2/FL vocabulary and presented ALEXIA, a lexical learning environment for French as a L2/FL, which includes a corpus of texts, a general and a personal dictionary, and a lexical activities unit. After reviewing various viewpoints about the effectiveness of multimedia for vocabulary learning, they propose useful criteria for evaluating the quality of a visual representation in a lexical environment. Groot (2000) presented another multimedia-enhanced computer-assisted word acquisition program, called CAVOCA, whose aim was to speed up the vocabulary acquisition process. CAVOCA is an interactive program that takes learners through different stages of vocabulary development: deduction, consolidation, and long-term retention.

Similarly, Tozcu and Coady (2004) conducted a case study that examined the outcomes in vocabulary acquisition when using interactive computer-based texts as opposed to traditional materials. The aim was to determine the effect of direct vocabulary instruction via computer assisted learning as opposed to traditional vocabulary training via print texts. Moreover, the effect of this direct instruction on reading comprehension and word recognition speed and therefore reading rate were also analyzed. The subjects of the study were 56 intermediate level students from various L1 backgrounds who were studying English for university academic preparation. The results suggested that the treatment group, who used a tutorial computer assisted courseware, outperformed the control group in all the three analyzed areas: vocabulary knowledge, reading comprehension, and reading speed. These results suggest positive implications of integrating technology in the language classroom for reading instruction and vocabulary development.

Benefits of Multimedia-enhanced Dictionaries

Other research that focused on vocabulary development with technology argued for the increased effectiveness of multimedia-enhanced electronic dictionaries designed specifically for English language learners, and which have several built-in aids that their book counterparts cannot provide (e.g. the Longman Interactive English Dictionary, the Oxford Picture Dictionary Interactive, etc.) (Butler-Pascoe and Wiburg, 2003: 126-127).

Vocabulary-development Software without Multimedia Components

However, not all software for vocabulary development has a multimedia component, and a good example is concordance software, which triggers good results, since it allows for the examination of lexical, syntactic, and semantic patterns in various reading passages and contexts (Anderson, 1999: 32). This type of computer program can be a valuable instructional tool to raises students' awareness of the various types of lexical items in authentic contexts and provides non-threatening classroom experiences giving students opportunities to improve reading and vocabulary skills (Butler-Pascoe and Wiburg, 2003: 128).

Benefits of Multimedia for Reading Comprehension

Multimedia is a great instructional component not only for vocabulary instruction, but also for reading comprehension, as some of the research presented above has suggested. The positive effect that multimedia has on reading comprehension comes, according to Busch (2003: 278), from the great advantage that online readers have over traditional printed readers: the possibility to enhance computerized texts with glosses in multimedia format. This is probably the reason why most studies dedicated to a computer-based approach to reading have focused on the usefulness of glosses in different formats to increase reading comprehension and vocabulary retention. Several researchers have argued for the positive effects that hypermedia has for L2/FL readers, because a text can be made more comprehensible for them by annotating it with multiple types of media glosses (Sakar and Ercetin, 2004: 28).

The effects of multimedia glossing received increased attention as researchers considered the possibility that computer-aided reading could create more proficient readers by offering a choice of various types of glosses to develop better vocabularies, greater background knowledge surrounding the text, and more effective reading strategies (Lyman-Hager and Davis, 1996: 775). Various studies argued that multimedia glossing is beneficial for reading comprehension and, consequently, for L2/FL vocabulary acquisition. Thus, Lomicka (1997) explored how multimedia annotations influenced the level of FL reading comprehension for students enrolled in a second semester French course. Three conditions were used when students were reading a text on the computer screen: full glossing, limited glossing, or no glossing. The results indicated that the students who had access to full glossing improved better than those who had access to either limited glossing or no glossing. Similar results were also suggested by Sakar and Ercetin (2004), who went even further and explored 44 adult intermediate-level EFL learners' preferences for hypermedia annotations. The results suggested that students preferred visual annotations to textual and audio annotations. Video and graphic annotations were accessed when students wanted to retrieve background information about the topic, and graphic annotations were used to illustrate the meanings of words.

In summary, it can be pointed out that vocabulary and reading comprehension are closely related, as it may be seen from the case studies presented above nearly all studies focused both on vocabulary and reading proficiency as they are influenced by multimedia. Vocabulary plays an important part in reading comprehension and techniques that are useful for vocabulary development (such as multimedia glossing) also benefit reading comprehension, and vice versa.

Teaching Principles

Given the fact that this paper has focused on various ways in which technology can assist in vocabulary acquisition and reading proficiency, the teaching principles that I suggest relate to the use of CALL in vocabulary and reading development.

First Principle: Instructors Should Pay More Attention to the Existence of Various Teaching Tools

The first principle I would like to propose is related to vocabulary acquisition and technology, namely, instructors should pay more attention to the existence of various teaching tools that help in vocabulary development, both traditional, and technology-enhanced. Apart from the traditional vocabulary teaching techniques (e.g. bilingual lists), instructors should also be aware of the potential of integrating technology in the language classroom. Thus, for vocabulary acquisition, instructors could make great use of technology by using multimedia glossed texts, electronic dictionaries, corpora and concordance software, as well as various vocabulary-building software.

Second Principle: Instructors Should Introduce Multimedia-glossed Texts into Their Vocabulary/Reading Classes

The second principle I propose is related to vocabulary development and glosses. As it can be concluded from the various research studies presented above, one great way to increase vocabulary acquisition and retention is the use of computerized reading passages enhanced with various types of glosses. As research has suggested, multimedia glossing triggers better results when compared to print glosses. Moreover, full glossing seems to be the best facilitator of vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension, as opposed to little or non-glossed texts. In addition, best results in retention are triggered by picture + text annotations, whereas pronunciation, video, and audio glosses seem to correlate negatively with reading comprehension. Multimedia glossing is, however, a valuable tool that can assist in vocabulary acquisition and recall, as well as in reading proficiency and should, therefore, be integrated by TESOL instructors in their vocabulary and reading classes.

Third Principle: Instructors Should Be Acquainted with the Criteria for Software and Courseware Evaluation

The third principle I find of great value for future ESL and EFL teachers, as well as for L2/FL instructors in general, who decide to use technology in their classrooms, is that they should be acquainted with the criteria for software and courseware evaluation (e.g. goals, presentation, appropriateness, outcomes), as well as take into consideration two very important factors: time and effort. Teachers must be aware that there are many different types of software or online materials available for ESL / EFL, however, not all of them are valuable for classroom instruction. Some materials focus on specific skills, while others focus on a wide range of skills and strategies. Moreover, instructors should also ensure that the materials used in class are motivating for students and are at an optimum, 'i+1' difficulty level, so that progress can be attained. Teachers should also pay attention to students' level of familiarity with computers and keep in mind whether the chosen software will trigger the desired outcomes.

Fourth Principle: Instructors Should Keep Up with Current Methodology and Make Best Use of Visuals and Multimedia

A fourth principle I would like to propose is for CALL instructors / developers. Thus, given what we currently know about the reading process and the various aids that help increase vocabulary acquisition, it is important that computer-based instruction designed to teach vocabulary and / or reading skills, is based on the current knowledge and methodological principles about how to best teach them.

Moreover, good CALL programs should make best use of visual elements and multimedia glossing, as well as generate students' participation. The programs should be interactive, allowing the students to make choices. Also, they should consist of a wide range of different types of exercises in which students not only choose the right answers but also type in answers.

Conclusion

To conclude, there is a reciprocal relationship between vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension. The better the students' vocabulary knowledge is, the better they perform with reading comprehension tasks. Similarly, the more the students read using the appropriate skills and strategies, the more their vocabulary develops. Multimedia plays an important part in both vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension; therefore, instructors should be aware of the potential benefits of integrating technology in the language classroom.